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Cited by 180Blockchain Technology Applications and SecurityBlockchain Technology in Education and LearningTransport and Logistics Innovations

A Review of Blockchain-Based Systems in Transportation

Open access
Astarita, Vittorio, Giofrè, Vincenzo Pasquale, Mirabelli, Giovanni, Solina, Vittorio·2019·Information
DOI 10.3390/info11010021
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Abstract

This paper presents a literature review about the application of blockchain-based systems in transportation. The main aim was to identify, through the implementation of a multi-step methodology: current research-trends, main gaps in the literature, and possible future challenges. First, a bibliometric analysis was carried out to obtain a broad overview of the topic of interest. Subsequently, the most influential contributions were analysed in depth, with reference to the following two areas: supply chain and logistics; road traffic management and smart cities. The most important result is that the blockchain technology is still in an early stage, but appears extremely promising, given its possible applications within multiple fields, such as food track and trace, regulatory compliance, smart vehicles’ security, and supply-demand matching. Much effort is still necessary for reaching the maturation stage because several models have been theorized in recent years, but very few have been implemented within real contexts. Moreover, the link blockchain-sustainability was explored, showing that this technology could be the trigger for limiting food waste, reducing exhaust gas emissions, favouring correct urban development, and, in general, improving quality of life.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review maps blockchain applications in transportation through a bibliometric and document analysis of 371 Scopus-indexed papers, identifying supply chain/logistics and road traffic/smart cities as the dominant research clusters. It finds blockchain in transportation is still early-stage, with many conceptual proposals and few real implementations, though promising for traceability, electric vehicle charging, smart city enabling, and smart vehicle security.

Key findings

  • From 874 initial Scopus records, after exclusions and relevance screening, 371 documents were analyzed; manual categorization assigned 244 to supply chain and logistics, 78 to road transportation, 30 to general interest, 9 to smart cities, 5 to air transportation, 4 to maritime transportation, and 1 to railway transportation. Rail, maritime, and air together accounted for only 10 of 371 papers, about 2.5%.
  • Between 2018 and 2019, the number of published articles almost doubled and the number of citations tripled. Top keywords were blockchain (319 occurrences, 86%), supply chains/supply chain (202, 54%), and internet of things (103, 28%).
  • Most reviewed top-cited works in the two macro-clusters were conceptual or proof-of-concept; only three presented real implementations based on real blockchains: [78] Ethereum, [80] OriginChain private blockchain, and [82] Ethereum and Hyperledger. In macro-cluster C2, there were no real implementations or computationally derived proofs of concept, only simulations in [85–87,90].
  • The review links blockchain to sustainability: greater traceability effectiveness could limit food waste, smart contracts could stimulate electric car growth and reduce exhaust emissions, information sharing among motorists could reduce urban traffic, and blockchain could favor sustainable urban development.

Methods

  • Seven-step literature review using Scopus. The query combined “blockchain” with traffic, logistic, supply chain, airport, transport, and transportation; it returned 874 publications, reduced to 745 after excluding conference reviews, notes, and editorials, then to 371 after reading abstracts/full papers and excluding duplicates, non-English documents, and irrelevant documents.
  • Bibliometric analysis was partly supported by VOSviewer 1.6.13, covering publication and citation frequency, source analysis, and keyword statistics. A co-occurrence analysis used keywords with more than 10 occurrences, totaling 52 keywords, and produced four clusters and two macro-clusters: C1 supply chain/logistics and C2 road traffic management/smart cities.
  • Manual categorization was performed on the 371 documents. For each macro-cluster, the 10 most cited articles excluding literature reviews were analyzed for topics, starting issues, and contributions, with implementation level summarized in Table 11.

Limitations

  • Stated: the review did not take into account documents specifically centered on trust issues, internet of things, trade, and general business. The authors also state that most examined transportation-sector papers are centered on potential applications, that there are very few real blockchain systems, and that simulations are not enough to demonstrate feasibility.
  • Stated: adoption barriers include lack of knowledge and expertise, financial constraints, technology immaturity, negative public perception, cultural differences among supply chain partners, lack of government policies and external stakeholder involvement, unwillingness to share information, performance/scalability limits, regulatory uncertainty, and irreversible mistakes increasing transaction costs.
  • Evident: reliance on a single database (Scopus) and a fixed keyword query may miss relevant work; manual categorization and selection of the top 10 most cited articles per macro-cluster may introduce selection or subjectivity bias.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/info11010021

Cites

98 of 98 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 68 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    The data in Tables 5-7 highlight regulatory compliance in pharmaceutical supply chains as an objective achievable through blockchain adoption.

    “From the data in Tables 567, other important possible objectives, achievable through the adoption of the blockchain technology, can be highlighted: regulatory compliance in pharmaceutical supply chains [78], right supply-demand matching in agricultural supply chains [81], and alignment of information sharing among supply chain actors [83].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [78] Bocek, T., Rodrigues, B.B., Strasser, T., and Stiller, B. (2017, January 8–12). Blockchains everywhere-a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain. Proceedings of the 2017 IFIP/IEEE Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management (IM), Lisbon, Portugal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    IEEE Access, the International Journal of Information Management, and the International Journal of Production Research are the first three journals (non-proceedings) in terms of published documents.

    “IEEE Access, the International Journal of Information Management, and the International Journal of Production Research are, instead, the first three journals (i.e., sources not related to proceedings).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Between 2018 and 2019, the number of published articles almost doubled.

    “Between 2018 and 2019, the number of published articles almost doubled”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Four out of 10 articles in the first cluster are strongly focused on using blockchain for product traceability in food chains.

    “some of the articles of the first cluster (i.e., four out of 10) are strongly focused on the use of blockchain technology, with the aim of ensuring product traceability in food chains [45,75,77,82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [45] Prieto, 2018, How blockchain improves the supply chain: Case study alimentary supply chain, Procedia Comput. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [75] Tian, F. (2016, January 24–26). An agri-food supply chain traceability system for China based on RFID & blockchain technology. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management (ICSSSM), Kunming, China.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [77] Tian, F. (2017, January 16–18). A supply chain traceability system for food safety based on haccp, blockchain & internet of things. Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management, Dalian, China.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [82] Caro, M.P., Ali, M.S., Vecchio, M., and Giaffreda, R. (2018, January 8–9). Blockchain-based traceability in Agri-Food supply chain management: A practical implementation. Proceedings of the 2018 IoT Vertical and Topical Summit on Agriculture, Tuscany, Italy. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingown data

    Very few papers have been published in the railway, maritime, and air transportation sectors: 10 out of 371 (around 2.5% of the total).

    “Moreover, it can be said that very few papers have been published in the railway, maritime, and air transportation sectors: 10 out of 371; in other words, just around 2.5% of the total number of documents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 49
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2
  • May combine two claims. 22

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Transportation-related journals have not yet published many works about blockchain technologies.

    “It is worth mentioning also, that transportation-related journals have not yet published many works about blockchain technologies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    After excluding certain document types, the number of publications was reduced to 745.

    “Subsequently, all documents, belonging to one of the following types, were excluded:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The term blockchain was the most used keyword (86%).

    “As expected, the term blockchain was the most used (86%), followed by supply chains (or supply chain) and internet of things, used, respectively, in 54% and 28% of cases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Internet of things was used in 28% of cases.

    “As expected, the term blockchain was the most used (86%), followed by supply chains (or supply chain) and internet of things, used, respectively, in 54% and 28% of cases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    A very large number of sources concerning blockchain in transport are conference proceedings.

    “It should be pointed out that a very large number of sources concern conference proceedings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    From the co-occurrence network, two macro-clusters can be defined: C1 concerns application of blockchain-based systems to supply chains or logistics; C2 is related to road traffic management and smart cities.

    “In particular, from the observation of the network, it is possible to define two macro-clusters (i.e., C 1 and C 2 ): the first one concerns the application of blockchain-based systems to supply chains or logistics; the second one, instead, is related to road traffic management and smart cities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Supply chains (or supply chain) was used in 54% of cases.

    “As expected, the term blockchain was the most used (86%), followed by supply chains (or supply chain) and internet of things, used, respectively, in 54% and 28% of cases.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The number of contributions grows considerably if we refer to the supply chain topic.

    “on the contrary, the number of contributions grows considerably if we refer to the supply chain topic”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The first query returned a total of 874 publications.

    “The first query returned a total of 874 publications.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Several models have been theorized in recent years, but very few have been implemented within real contexts.

    “Much effort is still necessary for reaching the maturation stage because several models have been theorized in recent years, but very few have been implemented within real contexts.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The results of the manual categorization confirmed the validity of the keyword analysis, which led to the aggregation of most papers in the two macro-clusters C1 and C2.

    “The results of the manual categorization confirmed the validity of the keyword analysis, which led to the aggregation of most papers in the two macro-clusters C 1 and C 2 .”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The number of academic papers published on blockchain-related subjects has dramatically increased recently.

    “Recently, the number of academic papers published on blockchain-related subjects has dramatically increased.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The application of blockchain technology in the airport sector seems to be a research branch still quite unexplored.

    “It can be noted that the application of blockchain technology in the airport sector seems to be a research branch still quite unexplored”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Three other contributions in the first cluster concern traceability in more general supply chain terms.

    “Three other contributions concern the concept of traceability, but in more general terms refer to the supply chain [76,79,80].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [76] Wu, H., Li, Z., King, B., Miled, Z.B., Wassick, J., and Tazelaar, J. (2017). A distributed ledger for supply chain physical distribution visibility. Information, 8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [79] Kim, 2016, Towards an Ontology-Driven Blockchain Design for Supply Chain Provenance, Intell. Syst. Account. Financ. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] Lu, 2017, Adaptable Blockchain-Based Systems: A Case Study for Product Traceability, IEEE Softw. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The blue and yellow clusters were the smallest and substantially concerned the basic aspects of the blockchain technology.

    “The blue and yellow clusters were the smallest and substantially concerned the basic aspects of the blockchain technology:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    The red cluster mainly concerns logistics aspects.

    “The red cluster, instead, mainly concerns logistics aspects, and some important recent research trends were detected:”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    An important branch of research concerns electric vehicles and the matching between energy demand and supply for recharging.

    “An important branch of research concerns electric vehicles and, in particular, the matching between the demand and supply of energy for recharging: the use of smart contracts and a blockchain can indeed promote safe auction mechanisms [88,89].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Papers [78,82] propose real implementations based on existing blockchains: Ethereum [78] and Ethereum and Hyperledger [82].

    “Papers [78,82] also propose real implementations, but based on existing blockchains: Ethereum [78] and Ethereum and Hyperledger [82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [78] Bocek, T., Rodrigues, B.B., Strasser, T., and Stiller, B. (2017, January 8–12). Blockchains everywhere-a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain. Proceedings of the 2017 IFIP/IEEE Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management (IM), Lisbon, Portugal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [82] Caro, M.P., Ali, M.S., Vecchio, M., and Giaffreda, R. (2018, January 8–9). Blockchain-based traceability in Agri-Food supply chain management: A practical implementation. Proceedings of the 2018 IoT Vertical and Topical Summit on Agriculture, Tuscany, Italy. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    Several approaches have been proposed by scholars to increase food quality and safety: RFID, QR Code, NFC, ontology, etc.

    “Several approaches have been proposed by scholars to increase food quality and safety: RFID, QR Code, NFC, ontology, etc.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The application of blockchain technology in electric vehicle recharging is new and little explored.

    “The application of blockchain technology in this area is something new and little explored.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Other works in macro-cluster C1 propose a proof of concept based on Ethereum [79], Matlab [81], and an experimental blockchain based on three nodes [76].

    “Other works in macro-cluster C 1 propose a proof of concept based on Ethereum [79], Matlab [81], and an experimental blockchain based on three nodes [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [79] Kim, 2016, Towards an Ontology-Driven Blockchain Design for Supply Chain Provenance, Intell. Syst. Account. Financ. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [81] Leng, 2018, Research on agricultural supply chain system with double chain architecture based on blockchain technology, Future Gener. Comput. Syst. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] Wu, H., Li, Z., King, B., Miled, Z.B., Wassick, J., and Tazelaar, J. (2017). A distributed ledger for supply chain physical distribution visibility. Information, 8. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Smart cities are another important topic treated in the second cluster.

    “Smart cities are another important topic treated: in a world where mobile devices are increasingly widespread, a blockchain can face challenges such as scalability, efficiency, and flexibility [84,90].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Traditional efforts to solve congestion problems have been centred on moving demand to transit and better managing road traffic using traffic simulation, dynamic network loading equilibria, and dynamic models.

    “Traditional efforts to solve congestion problems have been centred in attempts to move the demand on the transit system [96] and on a better management of road traffic using tools such as traffic simulation [97][98][99][100][101][102], dynamic network loading equilibria, and dynamic models [103,104] for the simulation and management of user route choice [105-109].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [96] Marzano, 2018, Incentives to freight railway undertakings compensating for infrastructural gaps: Methodology and practical application to Italy, Transp. Res. Part A Policy Pract. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [97][98][99][100][101][102]

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [103] Gentile, 2018, New formulations of the stochastic user equilibrium with logit route choice as an extension of the deterministic model, Transp. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [104] Gentile, 2016, Solving a Dynamic User Equilibrium model based on splitting rates with Gradient Projection algorithms, Transp. Res. Part B Methodol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    One of the main purposes in electric vehicle recharging is the right matching between energy demand and supply.

    “One of the main purposes concerns the right matching between energy demand and supply.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The relevance of blockchain technology for the logistics sector is claimed for traceability and for better integrated supply chain management.

    “The relevance of blockchain technology for the logistics sector is claimed for traceability and for a better integrated supply chain management.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    There are very few real blockchain systems in the literature.

    “There are very few real blockchain systems in the literature.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingcitation

    There is a lack of trust among the ITS actors.

    “Lack of trust among the ITS actors”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [52] Yuan, Y., and Wang, F.-Y. (2016, January 1–4). Towards blockchain-based intelligent transportation systems. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE 19th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    The introduction of blockchain technologies is often related to the diffusion of the Internet of connected systems and devices (IoT).

    “The introduction of blockchain technologies is often related to the diffusion of the Internet of connected systems and devices (i.e., IoT).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingcitation

    [78] has a real implementation based on Ethereum.

    “Ethereum”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [78] Bocek, T., Rodrigues, B.B., Strasser, T., and Stiller, B. (2017, January 8–12). Blockchains everywhere-a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain. Proceedings of the 2017 IFIP/IEEE Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management (IM), Lisbon, Portugal. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    The majority of scientific papers examined in the transportation sector are centred on potential applications.

    “It must be noted that the majority of scientific papers examined in the transportation sector are centred on potential applications.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    Service scenarios and design principles are discussed for Block-VN.

    “Service scenarios and design principles are discussed for Block-VN”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [84] Sharma, 2017, Block-VN: A Distributed Blockchain Based Vehicular Network Architecture in Smart City, J. Inf. Process. Syst.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    [79] has a proof of concept based on Ethereum.

    “Ethereum”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [79] Kim, 2016, Towards an Ontology-Driven Blockchain Design for Supply Chain Provenance, Intell. Syst. Account. Financ. Manag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation

    AgriBlockIoT can ensure IoT devices integration.

    “It can ensure IoT devices integration”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [82] Caro, M.P., Ali, M.S., Vecchio, M., and Giaffreda, R. (2018, January 8–9). Blockchain-based traceability in Agri-Food supply chain management: A practical implementation. Proceedings of the 2018 IoT Vertical and Topical Summit on Agriculture, Tuscany, Italy. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    There are concerns about practical applications of blockchain in transportation because some early blockchain projects have failed in the first years of deployment.

    “Blockchain technologies applied to the transportation sector are in an early phase of development, and while many authors advocate the use of this technology, there are also some concerns about practical applications, since some early blockchain projects have failed in the first years of deployment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    [81] has a proof of concept based on Matlab.

    “Matlab”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Leng, 2018, Research on agricultural supply chain system with double chain architecture based on blockchain technology, Future Gener. Comput. Syst. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Similar methodologies are quite common in the literature.

    “Similar methodologies are quite common in the literature [71,72].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [71] Kamble, 2018, Sustainable Industry 4.0 framework: A systematic literature review identifying the current trends and future perspectives, Process Saf. Environ. Prot. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [72] Mishra, 2016, Big Data and supply chain management: A review and bibliometric analysis, Ann. Oper. Res. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The link blockchain-sustainability could be the trigger for limiting food waste, reducing exhaust gas emissions, favouring correct urban development, and improving quality of life.

    “Moreover, the link blockchain-sustainability was explored, showing that this technology could be the trigger for limiting food waste, reducing exhaust gas emissions, favouring correct urban development, and, in general, improving quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Scopus is more comprehensive than Web of Science, which includes only ISI indexed journals (about 12,000 titles).

    “Scopus is more comprehensive than Web of Science (WoS), another important and recognised database, which includes only ISI indexed journals; then, about 12,000 titles [73].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [73] Yong-Hak, J. (2019, December 02). Web of Science Facts Sheet. Available online: http://wokinfo.com/media/pdf/WoSFS_08_7050.pdf.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The functionalities offered by blockchain, such as secure payments through cryptocurrency, could constitute the trigger to give a definitive impulse to the spread of electric cars.

    “The functionalities offered by the blockchain (e.g., secure payments through cryptocurrency) could, however, constitute the trigger to give a definitive impulse to the spread of electric cars.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a world where mobile devices are increasingly widespread, a blockchain can face challenges such as scalability, efficiency, and flexibility.

    “Smart cities are another important topic treated: in a world where mobile devices are increasingly widespread, a blockchain can face challenges such as scalability, efficiency, and flexibility [84,90].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] Sharma, 2017, Block-VN: A Distributed Blockchain Based Vehicular Network Architecture in Smart City, J. Inf. Process. Syst.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [90] Sharma, 2018, DistArch-SCNet: Blockchain-Based Distributed Architecture with Li-Fi Communication for a Scalable Smart City Network, IEEE Consum. Electron. Mag. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    Important efforts are needed to make blockchain-based architectures for electric vehicle recharging sufficiently scalable.

    “However, important efforts are needed to make the blockchain-based architectures sufficiently scalable [88]; in fact, over the years the number of motorists and suppliers who could decide to join the electric vehicle ecosystem could dramatically grow.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [88] Knirsch, 2018, Privacy-preserving Blockchain-based electric vehicle charging with dynamic tariff decisions, Comput. Sci. Res. Dev. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In blockchain-based food traceability, the information recorded remains over time and it is easy to trace the actor who inserted it.

    “In this context, blockchain technology constitutes an immense opportunity to improve food traceability: the decentralisation of the overall system avoids the existence of third parties, and this makes the information exchange between the actors faster and more efficient; the information recorded remains over time and it is quite easy to trace the actor who inserted it into the system.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The use of smart contracts could enable auction mechanisms for electric vehicle recharging.

    “In fact, the use of smart contracts could enable auction mechanisms.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    There is no problem of incompatibility among information systems of various entities involved in food traceability because a single platform can be used.

    “Furthermore, there is no problem of incompatibility among the information systems of the various entities involved, because a single platform can be used.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The benefits of food traceability are increasing the perceived value of goods and guaranteeing regulatory compliance.

    “The benefits of food traceability are twofold: (1) increasing the perceived value of goods; (2) guaranteeing regulatory compliance [93].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [93] Charlebois, 2014, Comparison of global food traceability regulations and requirements, Compr. Rev. Food Sci. Food Saf. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many traceability systems are ineffective: frauds are still quite widespread.

    “However, even today there are several shortcomings because many traceability systems are ineffective: frauds are still quite widespread [94], while the recall costs are often very high in the case of food scandals because the granular traceability is onerous, especially in the case of batch mixing [95].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [94] Charlebois, 2016, An exploratory study for measuring consumer perception towards mislabelled food products and influence on self-authentication intentions, Trends Food Sci. Technol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The introduction of blockchain technology could solve security problems in data management caused by IoT.

    “Considering that the use of IoT, although very useful, leads to security problems in data management, the introduction of blockchain technology could solve this important issue.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The use of IoT leads to security problems in data management.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Implementing blockchain technology could make drivers more secure in sharing information about real-time position, traffic conditions, and unexpected events such as road accidents.

    “Implementing blockchain technology could mean making drivers more secure in sharing information about: real-time position, traffic conditions, and any unexpected events, such as road accidents.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Blockchain technology constitutes an immense opportunity to improve food traceability because decentralisation avoids third parties, making information exchange faster and more efficient.

    “In this context, blockchain technology constitutes an immense opportunity to improve food traceability: the decentralisation of the overall system avoids the existence of third parties, and this makes the information exchange between the actors faster and more efficient; the information recorded remains over time and it is quite easy to trace the actor who inserted it into the system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The greater effectiveness of traceability systems could minimise the number of lots recalled from the market in the event of food scandals, limiting food waste.

    “The greater effectiveness of traceability systems could minimise the number of lots that are recalled from the market in the event of food scandals, limiting food waste.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The future introduction of autonomous vehicles and the switch from fuel-based technologies to electric vehicles has the potential to completely change the road traffic sector.

    “The future introduction of autonomous vehicles and the switch from fuel-based technologies to electric vehicles has the potential, in fact, to completely change the road traffic sector: goods and people will be moved by driver-less autonomous vehicles in smart cities.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Blockchain technology could lead to a continual increase in the number of smart cities, favouring sustainable urban development.

    “The blockchain technology could lead to a continual increase in the number of smart cities, favouring sustainable urban development.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Information sharing among motorists, stimulated by rewarding mechanisms through an appropriate cryptocurrency, could reduce traffic in overcrowded urban areas, improving quality of life.

    “The information sharing among motorists, stimulated by rewarding mechanisms through an appropriate cryptocurrency, could reduce traffic in overcrowded urban areas, improving the quality of life.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other significant limitations for blockchain adoption are lack of willingness of chain actors to share information, limits on transactions per unit time compared to Visa or Mastercard, and regulatory uncertainty.

    “Other significant limitations are: lack of willingness of the actors of the chain to share information [115], limits on the number of transactions per unit of time, compared to other players such as Visa or Mastercard (i.e., performance and scalability issues) [116], and regulatory uncertainty [47].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [115] Kembro, 2014, Theoretical perspectives on information sharing in supply chains: A systematic literature review and conceptual framework, Supply Chain Manag. Int. J. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [116] Vlastelica, R. (2019, December 19). Why Bitcoin Won’t Displace Visa or Mastercard Soon. Available online: https://www.marketwatch.com/story/why-bitcoin-wont-displace-visa-or-mastercard-soon-2017-12-15.

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [47] Petersen, 2018, Mapping the sea of opportunities: Blockchain in supply chain and logistics, It-Inf. Technol.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The use of smart contracts could stimulate the growth of the electric car market, with consequent environmental benefits from reduced exhaust gas emissions.

    “The use of smart contracts could stimulate the growth of the electric car market, with consequent benefits for the environment, considering the reduction of exhaust gas emissions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Blockchain systems could satisfy the future needs of citizens and authorities to exchange and store personal data safely.

    “As an example, blockchain systems could satisfy the future needs of citizens and authorities to exchange and store personal data safely.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    In the future, vehicles will have to refuel autonomously and the current credit card-based transaction paradigm could become inadequate for the exchange of services and energy between machines.

    “In this future scenario, vehicles will have also to refuel autonomously and the current paradigm of the credit card-based transaction could become inadequate for the exchange of services and energy between machines.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Blockchain technology is still immature and not ready for large-scale dissemination.

    “Basically, this technology is still immature and not ready for large-scale dissemination.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The blockchain databases have to be connected with the physical world, and in many works it is foreseen that this connection will be carried on by IoT devices.

    “The blockchain databases have to be connected with the physical world, and in many works it is foreseen that this connection will be carried on by IoT devices.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The blockchain databases have to be connected with the physical world.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The development of smart cities can create demand for blockchain technology.

    “The development of smart cities, where the above-listed services and technologies are implemented, can create demand for blockchain technology.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Blockchain technologies can improve trust and data sharing among supply chain actors.

    “Blockchain technologies can improve trust and data sharing among supply chain actors.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
61 of 61

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Developing, implementing, and maintaining a working blockchain is a complex task that requires great computational resources.

    “It must be noted that developing, implementing, and maintaining a working blockchain is a complex task that requires great computational resources.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    To keep active the different nodes of a blockchain, it is necessary to introduce some form of incentive for the different node owners.

    “To keep active the different nodes of a blockchain, it is necessary to introduce some form of incentive for the different node owners, and it would be a contradiction of the blockchain premise if a single interested entity should rule all the nodes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    It would be a contradiction of the blockchain premise if a single interested entity should rule all the nodes.

    “To keep active the different nodes of a blockchain, it is necessary to introduce some form of incentive for the different node owners, and it would be a contradiction of the blockchain premise if a single interested entity should rule all the nodes.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The use of IoT leads to security problems in data management.

    “Considering that the use of IoT, although very useful, leads to security problems in data management, the introduction of blockchain technology could solve this important issue.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The blockchain databases have to be connected with the physical world.

    “The blockchain databases have to be connected with the physical world, and in many works it is foreseen that this connection will be carried on by IoT devices.”
5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The blue cluster revolves around the potentials of blockchain solutions for smart communities, energy trading, transportation, artificial intelligence, and construction.

    “Furthermore, the blue cluster revolves around the potentials of blockchain solutions for smart communities (Aggarwal et al. 2019), energy trading (Chaudhary et al. 2019; Jindal et al. 2019), transportation (Astarita et al. 2020; Mehta et al. 2020; Sharma and Park 2018), artificial intelligence (Singh et al. 2019, 2020a, b), and construction (Sun and Zhang 2020).”

    From Blockchain technology in the smart city: A bibliometric review (2022) · cites this paper as Astarita et al. 2020

  • The relative immaturity and lack of wide-scale implementations of blockchain constitute one of the significant systems-related barriers to adoption in smart cities.

    “Despite the enablers of blockchain for smart cities, as evidenced in the reviewed literature, the relative immaturity and lack of wide-scale implementations of the technology constitute one of the significant systems-related barriers (Astarita et al. 2020).”

    From Blockchain technology in the smart city: A bibliometric review (2022) · cites this paper as Astarita et al. 2020

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • The VOSviewer citation points to an unrelated paper

    Minor

    The text cites reference [74] for VOSviewer, but reference 74 is an agri-food traceability paper. The VOSviewer software citation appears as reference 73.

1 of 1

Cites

1 retracted

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Europa Press (2019, November 28). Santander y otros grandes bancos lanzan “su bitcoin” utilizando la tenología blockchain. Available online: https://www.eleconomista.es/empresas-finanzas/noticias/7782103/08/16/Economia-Santander-se-une-a-cinco-entidades-para-promover-el-uso-de-dinero-digital-entre-entidades-financieras.html.
  2. Lemieux, V.L. (2017, January 17–19). In Blockchain We Trust? Blockchain Technology for Identity Management and Privacy Protection. Proceedings of the International Conference for E-Democracy and Open Government (CeDEM 2017), Krems, Austria.
  3. Getso, 2017, The blockchain revolution and higher education, Int. J. Inf. Syst. Eng., 5, 57
  4. Badzar, A. (2016). Blockchain for Securing Sustainable Transport Contracts and Supply Chain Transparency. [Master’s Thesis, Lund University].

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Astarita, V., Giofrè, V. P., Mirabelli, G., & Solina, V.
Affiliations
University of Calabria (IT)
Corresponding author
Solina, Vittorio
ORCID
Venue
Information
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-12-29
Volume
11
Issue
1
Pages
21
ISSN
2078-2489 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/info11010021
OpenAlex
W2996885877
Semantic Scholar
fd575712e32943402ade9c75e8439ba860af48fb
Cited by
180
References
98
Citations by year
2026: 7 · 2025: 21 · 2024: 32 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 38 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 17
FWCI
26.72
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Information (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion)
  • Archive of Doctoral Theses and Digital Collections (University of Calabria) (submittedVersion)
  • INFM-OAR (INFN Catania) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Blockchain Technology Applications and Security
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Information Systems › Blockchain Technology in Education and Learning
  • Physical Sciences › Engineering › Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering › Transport and Logistics Innovations
Keywords
blockchain, transportation, supply chain management, logistics, road traffic management, smart cities, food traceability, regulatory compliance, supply-demand matching, sustainability, food waste reduction, emission reduction

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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