A Review on the Use of Blockchain for the Internet of Things

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

IoT devices will grow to 26 billion by 2020, which is 30 times the estimated number deployed in 2009 and more than the 7.3 billion smartphones, tablets and PCs expected in use by 2020.

“some reports [1] predict that IoT devices will grow to 26 billions by 2020, which are 30 times the estimated number of devices deployed in 2009 and is far more than the 7.3 billion smartphones, tablets and PCs that are expected to be in use by 2020.”

• cites [1] [1] Gartner. Report: 'Forecast: The Internet of Things, Worldwide, 2013'. Nov. 2013. -Not checked yet

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A traceability application using IoT sensors and blockchain verifies data integrity and public accessibility to temperature records in the pharmaceutical supply chain.

“For instance, in [69] it is presented a traceability application that makes use of IoT sensors and blockchain technology to verify data integrity and public accessibility to temperature records in the pharmaceutical supply chain.”

• cites [69] [69] Bocek, T., Rodrigues, B. B., Strasser, T., Stiller, B. 'Blockchains everywhere - a use-case of blockchains in the pharma supply-chain', in Proceedings of the IFIP/IEEE Symposium on Integrated Network and Service Management (IM), Lisbon, Portugal, 8-12 May 2017. -Not checked yet

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The need for a robust distributed system is not enough to justify blockchain; there also has to be at least a lack of trust in the entity that manages the distributed computing system.

“The need of this feature is not enough to justify the use of a blockchain: there also has to be at least a lack of trust in the entity that manages the distributed computing system.”

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Machine-to-Machine connections will grow fourfold from 780 million in 2016 to 3.3 billion by 2021.

“some forecasts [2] anticipate a fourfold growth in Machine-to-Machine (M2M) connections in the next years (from 780 million in 2016 to 3.3 billion by 2021)”

• cites [2] [2] Cisco Systems. White paper: Cisco Visual Networking Index: Global Mobile Data Traffic Forecast Update, 2016-2021. March 2017. -Not checked yet

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Experiments with up to 100 peers on IBM's Bluemix show that average consensus time grows as the number of peers increases.

“The experiments measure the average time to reach a consensus and it can be observed how it grows as the number of peers increases.”

• cites [77] [77] Sukhwani, H., Martínez, J. M., Chang, X., Trivedi, K. S., Rindos, A. 'Performance Modeling of PBFT Consensus Process for Permissioned Blockchain Network (Hyperledger Fabric)', in Proceedings of the IEEE 36th Symposium on Reliable Distributed Systems (SRDS), Hong Kong, China, 26-29 Sep. 2017. -Not checked yet

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Several authors studied BIoT performance in different scenarios, mainly focusing on the performance of consensus algorithms.

“In order to optimize them, several authors studied BIoT performance in different scenarios. They analyzed a number of influential aspects, but they mainly focus on the performance of consensus algorithms.”

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Decentralized architectures were suggested in the past to create large Peer-to-Peer Wireless Sensor Networks.

“Among such proposals, decentralized architectures were suggested in the past to create large Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) [9]-[11]”

• cites [9]-[11]Not checked yet

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If there is mutual trust, a blockchain is not required.

“However, many users still trust blindly certain companies, government agencies or banks, so if there is mutual trust, a blockchain is not required.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Big Data can be leveraged by blockchain technology to ensure its trustworthiness, and some researchers reviewed blockchain-based solutions to gather and control massive amounts of data from IoT networks.

“Finally, it should be mentioned that Big Data can be leveraged by blockchain technology (i.e., to ensure its trustworthiness), so some researchers [27] reviewed the main blockchain-based solutions to gather and control massive amounts of data that may be collected from IoT networks.”

• cites [27] [27] Karafiloski, E., Mishev, A., 'Blockchain solutions for big data challenges: A literature review', in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Smart Technologies, Ohrid, Macedonia, 6-8 July 2017. -Not checked yet

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A blockchain-based platform architecture for clinical trials and precision medicine has been presented.

“Another healthcare BIoT application is detailed in [70], where it is presented the architecture of a blockchain-based platform for clinical trials and precision medicine.”

• cites [70] [70] Shae, Z., Tsai, J. J. P. 'On the Design of a Blockchain Platform for Clinical Trial and Precision Medicine', in Proceedings of the IEEE 37th International Conference on Distributed Computing Systems (ICDCS), Atlanta, United States, 5-8 June 2017. - sourceNot checked yet

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A blockchain is not always the best solution for every IoT scenario.

“Before delving into the details on how to make use of a blockchain for IoT applications, it must be first emphasized that a blockchain is not always the best solution for every IoT scenario.”

May combine two claims.

Some IoT applications may need to keep a record of every transaction for traceability, auditing, or later Big Data techniques, and in these situations a sidechain may be useful.

“Some IoT applications [43], [44] may need to keep a record of every transaction to maintain traceability, for auditing purposes or because Big Data techniques will be applied later [45], [46]. In these situations, a sidechain may be useful [47].”

• cites [43] [43] Wu, Z., Meng, Z., Gray, J. 'IoT-Based Techniques for Online M2MInteractive Itemized Data Registration and Offline Information Traceability in a Digital Manufacturing System', in IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 2397-2405, Oct. 2017. -Not checked yet

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• cites [44] [44] Lomotey, R. K., Pry, J., Sriramoju, S., Kaku, E., Deters, R. 'Wearable IoT Data Architecture', in Proceedings of theIEEE World Congress on Services (SERVICES), Honolulu, United States, 25-30 June 2017. -Not checked yet

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• cites [47] [47] Back, A., Corallo, M., Dashjr, L., Friedenbach, M., Maxwell, G., Miller, A., Poelstra, A., Timón, J., Wuille, P. 'Enabling Blockchain Innovations with Pegged Sidechains'. Available online: https://www.blockstream. com/sidechains.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) <!-- image --> IEEEAccess -Not checked yet

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Investments by venture capitalists in blockchain start-ups rose from 93 million to 550 million U.S. dollars from 2013 to 2016.

“As reported by Statista [15], investments by venture capitalists in blockchain start-ups rose from 93 million to 550 million U.S. dollars from 2013 to 2016.”

• cites [15] [15] MarketsandMarkets; Statista estimates. Market for blockchain technology worldwide. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/ 647231/worldwide-blockchain-technology-market-size/ (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

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Blockchain technologies are able to track, coordinate, carry out transactions and store information from a large amount of devices, enabling applications that require no centralized cloud.

“Blockchain technologies are able to track, coordinate, carry out transactions and store information from a large amount of devices, enabling the creation of applications that require no centralized cloud.”

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Distributed systems can also be built on top of clouds, server farms or traditional distributed computing systems.

“Distributed systems can also be built on top of clouds, server farms or any form of traditional distributed computing systems [42].”

• cites [42] [42] Datla, D., Chen, X., Tsou, T., Raghunandan, S., Shajedul Hasan, S. M., Reed, J. H., Dietrich, C. B., Bose, T., Fette, B., Kim, J.-H. 'Wireless distributed computing: a survey of research challenges', in IEEE Communications Magazine, vol. 50, no. 1, pp. 144-152, Jan. 2012. - sourceNot checked yet

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The expected growth of IoT suggests that new paradigms beyond the centralized server-client paradigm will have to be proposed.

“Although this solution may work properly nowadays, the expected growth suggests that new paradigms will have to be proposed.”

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Traditional databases or Directed Acyclic Graph based ledgers may be a better fit for certain IoT applications.

“Traditional databases or Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) based ledgers [37] may be a better fit for certain IoT applications.”

• cites [37] [37] IOTA's official web page. Available online: https://www.iota.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

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A single-fee micro-payment protocol aggregates several small payments into a larger transaction to reduce transaction fees of cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin.

“In addition, to reduce the transaction fees of cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, the researchers present a singlefee micro-payment protocol that aggregates several small payments into a larger transaction.”

• cites [68] [68] Lundqvist, T., de Blanche, A., Andersson, H. R. H. 'Thing-to-thing electricity micro payments using blockchain technology', in Proceedings <!-- image --> IEEEAccess - of the Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS), Geneva, Switzerland, 6-9 June 2017. - sourceNot checked yet

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A traceability system for tracking Chinese agri-food supplies based on RFID and blockchain aims to enhance food safety and quality and reduce losses in logistics.

“For example, in [63] it is presented a traceability system for tracking Chinese agri-food supplies. The system is based on the use of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) and a blockchain, being its aim to enhance food safety and quality, and to reduce losses in logistics.”

• cites [63] [63] Tian, F., 'An agri-food supply chain traceability system for China based on RFID &amp; blockchain technology', in Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Service Systems and Service Management (ICSSSM), Kunming, China, 24-26 June 2016. -Not checked yet

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A blockchain-based system allows IoT/IoE devices to pay each other for services without human intervention, demonstrated by a smart cable paying a smart socket for electricity consumed.

“An example is detailed in [68], where the authors propose a blockchain-based system that allows IoT/IoE devices to pay each other for services without human intervention. In the paper it is described an implementation that shows the potential of the system: a smart cable that connects to a smart socket is able to pay for the electricity consumed.”

• cites [68] [68] Lundqvist, T., de Blanche, A., Andersson, H. R. H. 'Thing-to-thing electricity micro payments using blockchain technology', in Proceedings <!-- image --> IEEEAccess - of the Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS), Geneva, Switzerland, 6-9 June 2017. - sourceNot checked yet

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Different blockchain-based industrial applications are reviewed, including their connection to Industrial IoT networks.

“In [28], different blockchain-based industrial applications are reviewed, including their connection to Industrial IoT (IIoT) networks.”

• cites [28] [28] Ahram, T., Sargolzaei, A., Sargolzaei, S., Daniels, J., Amaba, B., 'Blockchain technology innovations', in Proceedings of the IEEE Technology &amp; Engineering Management Conference (TEMSCON), Santa Clara, United States, 8-10 June 2017. -Not checked yet

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Ethereum is Turing-complete, meaning its programming language can be used to simulate any other language.

“In fact, Ethereum is characterized by being Turing-complete, which is a mathematical concept that indicates that Ethereum's programming language can be used to simulate any other language.”

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Blockchain addresses the current critical challenges for massive IoT adoption.

“since it addresses the current critical challenges for its massive adoption:”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Blockchain technologies can bring many benefits to IoT, but since they have not been devised explicitly for IoT environments, their components should be adapted.

“Blockchain technologies can bring many benefits to IoT, but, since they have not been devised explicitly for IoT environments, the different pieces that make them up should be adapted.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Blockchain technologies have not been devised explicitly for IoT environments.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Bitcoin has poor scalability, making no sense today given modern cryptocurrency platforms like Ethereum.

“The author points out that, although Bitcoin has been a clear success, its poor scalability makes no sense today, since there are modern cryptocurrency platforms like Ethereum.”

• cites [78] [78] Vukoli´ c, M. 'The Quest for Scalable Blockchain Fabric: Proof-ofWork vs. BFT Replication'. Available online: http://www.vukolic.com/ iNetSec\_2015.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

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Blockchain applicability evolution started with Bitcoin (blockchain 1.0), then evolved towards smart contracts (blockchain 2.0) and later moved to justice, efficiency and coordination applications (blockchain 3.0).

“Some authors [19] suggested that blockchain applicability evolution started with Bitcoin (blockchain 1.0), then evolved towards smart contracts (blockchain 2.0) and later moved to justice, efficiency and coordination applications (blockchain 3.0).”

• cites [19] [19] Swan, M. 'Blockchain: blueprint for a new economy'. First Edition, O'Reilly Media, Jan. 2015. -Not checked yet

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Some IoT applications may require economic transactions with third parties, but many do not; traditional payment systems can still be used though they imply fees and trust in banks or middlemen.

“Some IoT applications may require to perform economic transactions with third parties, but many applications do not. Moreover, economic transactions can still be carried out through traditional payment systems, although they usually imply to pay transaction fees and it is necessary to trust banks or middlemen.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Many IoT networks collect data that need to be timestamped and stored sequentially, but such needs may be easily fulfilled with traditional databases, especially where security is guaranteed or attacks are rare.

“Many IoT networks collect data that need to be timestamped and stored sequentially. Nonetheless, such needs may be easily fulfilled with traditional databases, especially in cases where security is guaranteed or where attacks are rare.”

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A blockchain-based system can control and configure IoT devices remotely, storing public keys in Ethereum and private keys on each IoT device.

“Other researchers focused on managing IoT devices through a blockchain [64]. Such researchers proposed a system able to control and configure IoT devices remotely. The system stores public keys in Ethereum while private keys are saved on each IoT device.”

• cites [64] [64] Huh, S., Cho, S., Kim, S., 'Managing IoT devices using blockchain platform', in Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Bongpyeong, South Korea, 19-22 Feb. 2017. -Not checked yet

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Ethereum is arguably the most popular blockchain-based platform for running smart contracts, although it can run other distributed applications and interact with more than one blockchain.

“Ethereum is arguably the most popular blockchain-based platform for running smart contracts, although it can actually run other distributed applications and interact with more than one blockchain.”

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A generic smart healthcare system uses IoT devices, cloud and fog computing, a blockchain, Tor and message brokers.

“It is also worth mentioning the work described in [71], which presents a generic smart healthcare system that makes use of IoT devices, cloud and fog computing [72], a blockchain, Tor [73] and message brokers.”

• cites [71] [71] Salahuddin, M. A., Al-Fuqaha, A., Guizani, M., Shuaib, K., Sallabi, F. 'Softwarization of Internet of Things Infrastructure for Secure and Smart Healthcare' in Computer, vol. 50, no. 7, July 2017, pp. 74-79. - sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [72] [72] Dolui, K., Datta, S. K. 'Comparison of edge computing implementations: Fog computing, cloudlet and mobile edge computing', in Proceedings of the Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS), Geneva, Switzerland, 6-9 June 2017. - sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [73] [73] Tor project official web page. Available online: https://www.torproject. org (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not matched

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A framework integrates smart devices securely for providing smart city applications.

“In the case of [76] it is proposed a framework that integrates smart devices in a secure way for providing smart city applications.”

• cites [76] [76] Biswas, K., Muthukkumarasamy, V. 'Securing Smart Cities Using Blockchain Technology', in Proceedings of the IEEE 14th International Conference on Smart City, Sydney, Australia, 12-14 Dec. 2016. - sourceNot checked yet

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The key contribution of blockchain is that it provides a way to carry out transactions with another person or entity without having to rely on third-parties.

“Therefore, the key contribution of blockchain is that it provides a way to carry out transactions with another person or entity without having to rely on third-parties.”

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The market for blockchain technology worldwide is forecast to grow to 2.3 billion U.S. dollars by 2021.

“Furthermore, the market for blockchain technology worldwide is forecast to grow to 2.3 billion U.S. dollars by 2021.”

• cites [15] [15] MarketsandMarkets; Statista estimates. Market for blockchain technology worldwide. Available online: https://www.statista.com/statistics/ 647231/worldwide-blockchain-technology-market-size/ (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

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Blockchain technology may reach its full potential within the next 4 years based on its current pace of evolution.

“According to McKinsey &amp; Company, although it is still in a nascent stage, blockchain technology may reach its full potential within the next 4 years based on its current pace of evolution [16].”

• cites [16] [16] Blockchain Technology report to the US Federal Advisory Committee on Insurance. Available online: https://www.treasury.gov/initiatives/fio/ Documents/McKinsey\_FACI\_Blockchain\_in\_Insurance.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

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Privacy and security pieces were missing in decentralized architectures until the arrival of blockchain technology.

“but some pieces were missing in relation to privacy and security until the arrival of blockchain technology.”

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As of writing, there are over 1,563 digital coins.

“In addition, as of writing, there are over 1,563 digital coins [17]”

• cites [17] [17] Crypto-currency market capitalizations. Available online: https:// coinmarketcap.comhttps://coinmarketcap.com/ (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not matched

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IoT applications demand decentralization when there is not a trusted centralized system.

“Decentralization. IoT applications demand decentralization when there is not a trusted centralized system.”

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PoW performance can be improved by mixing it with a BFT protocol.

“In the paper it is suggested to improve PoW performance by mixing it with a BFT protocol.”

• cites [78] [78] Vukoli´ c, M. 'The Quest for Scalable Blockchain Fabric: Proof-ofWork vs. BFT Replication'. Available online: http://www.vukolic.com/ iNetSec\_2015.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

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The most common public-key based cipher suites are RSA and Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Exchange (ECDHE), which are recommended by NIST for Transport Layer Security (TLS).

“The most common public-key based cipher suites are RSAand Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman Exchange (ECDHE), which are the ones recommended by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) [105] for Transport Layer Security (TLS) [106].”

• cites [105] [105] NIST official web page. Available online: https://www.nist.gov (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

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• cites [106] [106] Polk, T., McKay, K., Chokhani, S. 'Guidelines for the Selection and Use of Transport Layer Security (TLS) Implementations', NIST Special Publication 800-52 Revision 1, June 2005. -Not checked yet

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ADEPT uses Proof-of-Stake (PoS) and PoW, which guarantee network integrity and security without imposing additional limitations.

“Therefore, ADEPT uses Proof-of-Stake (PoS) and PoW, which guarantee network integrity and security, but which do not impose additional limitations.”

• cites [88] [88] IBM, 'ADEPT: An IoT Practitioner Perspective', white paper, 2015. -Not checked yet

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Transactions are verified cryptographically, so when malicious activities from a compromised device are detected, the system can reject its blockchain updates.

“Moreover, transactions are verified cryptographically, so when malicious activities from a compromised device are detected, the system can reject its blockchain updates.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The SDN-based architecture in [102] reduces delays, increases throughput, and is able to detect real-time attacks on the IoT network.

“The results obtained by the authors indicate that the architecture reduces delays, increases throughput and it is able to detect real-time attacks on the IoT network.”

• cites [102] [102] Sharma, P. K., Chen, M.-Y., Park, J.-H. 'A Software Defined Fog Node based Distributed Blockchain Cloud Architecture for IoT', IEEE Access, Sep. 2017. -Not checked yet

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If a single IoT device is compromised, it may disrupt the whole network by performing DoS attacks, eavesdropping private data, altering collected data or misleading other systems.

“In addition, it is important to emphasize that if a single IoT device is compromised, it may disrupt the whole network by performing Denial of Service (DoS) attacks [80], eavesdropping private data [81], altering the collected data [82] or misleading other systems [83].”

• cites [80] [80] Anirudh, M., Thileeban, S. A., Nallathambi, D. J. 'Use of honeypots for mitigating DoS attacks targeted on IoT networks', in Proceedings of the International Conference on Computer, Communication and Signal Processing (ICCCSP), Chennai, Indica, 10-11 Jan. 2017. -Not checked yet

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• cites [81] [81] Xu, Q., Ren, P., Song, H., Du, Q. 'Security Enhancement for IoT Communications Exposed to Eavesdroppers With Uncertain Locations', in IEEE Access, vol. 4, pp. 2840-2853, June 2016. -Not checked yet

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• cites [82] [82] Li, X., Wang, H., Yu, Y., Qian, C. 'An IoT Data Communication Framework for Authenticity and Integrity', in Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM Second International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and Implementation (IoTDI), Pittsburgh, United States, 18-21 Apr. 2017. -Not checked yet

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IBM's ADEPT was conceived for secure, scalable and autonomous peer-to-peer IoT telemetry.

“Such a platform was conceived for secure, scalable and autonomous peer-to-peer IoT telemetry.”

• cites [88] [88] IBM, 'ADEPT: An IoT Practitioner Perspective', white paper, 2015. -Not checked yet

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Bitcoin's timestamping method includes a hash of the previous timestamp, which maintains the order of transactions even when clocks are inaccurate and makes it difficult to insert fake transactions in the already linked chain.

“For instance, the method implemented by Bitcoin is inspired by one of the solutions proposed in [125], where each timestamp includes a hash of the previous timestamp, what maintains the order of the transactions (even when the clocks are inaccurate) and makes it difficult to insert fake transactions in the already linked chain.”

• cites [125] [125] Haber, S., Stornetta, W. S. 'How to time-stamp a digital document', in Journal of Cryptology, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 99-111, Jan. 1991. -Not checked yet

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Implementing consensus protocols in hardware is probably the most promising way for improving the performance of any consensus method.

“In addition, it is stated that the implementation of the consensus protocols in hardware is probably the most promising way for improving the performance of any consensus method.”

• cites [78] [78] Vukoli´ c, M. 'The Quest for Scalable Blockchain Fabric: Proof-ofWork vs. BFT Replication'. Available online: http://www.vukolic.com/ iNetSec\_2015.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

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Transactions have to be both signed and timestamped in order to track modifications on the blockchain.

“In order to track modifications on the blockchain, transactions have to be both signed and timestamped.”

May combine two claims.

Distributed timestamping avoids a single point of failure but is prone to Sybil attacks; Bitcoin solves them by linking blocks and using the PoW mechanism.

“In addition, timestamping can be distributed, hence avoiding the problem of having a single point of failure. Although such a distributed system is prone to Sybil attacks [126], Bitcoin solves them by linking blocks and using the PoW mechanism.”

• cites [126] [126] Douceur, J. R. 'The Sybil Attack', in Proceedings of the 1st International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems (IPTPS), Cambridge, United States, 7-8 March 2002. -Not checked yet

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The architecture in [95] uses cloud and fog computing to provide BIoT applications because hosting a regular blockchain on traditional resource-constrained IoT devices is difficult.

“The authors indicate that the architecture is proposed because is really difficult to host a regular blockchain on traditional resource-constrained IoT devices.”

• cites [95] [95] Samaniego, M., Deters, R. 'Blockchain as a Service for IoT', in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference onInternet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Chengdu, China, 15-18 Dec. 2016. -Not checked yet

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Traditional timestamping schemes rely on trusting the server, which signs and timestamps transactions with its own private key, and no one deters the server from signing past transactions.

“Traditional schemes rely on having trustworthiness on the server, which signs and timestamps transactions with its own private key. Nonetheless, no one deters the server from signing past transactions.”

May combine two claims.

A 2048-bit RSA key is the minimum size considered secure, since 768-bit and 1024-bit RSA implementations were broken in 2010.

“A 2048-bit key is the minimum size considered secure, since 768-bit and 1024-bit RSA implementations were broken in 2010 [109], [110].”

• cites [109] [109] Kleinjung, T., Aoki, K., Franke, J., Lenstra, A. K., Thomé, E., Bos, J. W., Gaudry, P., Kruppa, A., Montgomery, P. L., Osvik, D. A., te Riele, H. J. J., Timofeev, A., Zimmermann, P. 'Factorization of a 768-Bit RSA Modulus', in Proceedings of the 30th annual conference on Advances in cryptology, Santa Barbara, United States, 15-19 Aug. 2010. - sourceNot checked yet

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• cites [110] [110] Pellegrini, A., Bertacco, V., Austin, T. 'Fault-based attack of RSA authentication', in Proceedings of the Design, Automation &amp; Test in Europe Conference &amp; Exhibition, Dresden, Germany, 8-12 Mar. 2010. -Not matched

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In August 2015, the National Security Agency (NSA) recommended stopping the use of Suite B, an ECC-based algorithm, apparently because of progress recently made on quantum cryptography.

“However, note that in August 2015 the National Security Agency (NSA) recommended stopping the use of Suite B, an ECC-based algorithm, apparently, because of the progress recently made on quantum cryptography [120].”

• cites [120] [120] Koblitz, N., Menezes, A. 'A Riddle Wrapped in an Enigma', in IEEE Security &amp; Privacy, vol 14, no. 6, pp. 34-42, Dec. 2016. -Not checked yet

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Fog computing is a subset of edge computing.

“Fog computing is actually considered a subset of edge computing [72]”

• cites [72] [72] Dolui, K., Datta, S. K. 'Comparison of edge computing implementations: Fog computing, cloudlet and mobile edge computing', in Proceedings of the Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS), Geneva, Switzerland, 6-9 June 2017. -Not checked yet

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The architecture supporting a blockchain for IoT applications should be adapted to the amount of traffic such applications usually generate.

“The architecture that supports a blockchain used for IoT applications should have to be adapted to the amount of traffic that such applications usually generate.”

May combine two claims.

Traditional cloud-centered IoT architectures have inherent vulnerabilities, the most relevant being that the cloud is a point of failure: if the cloud is down due to cyberattacks, maintenance or software problems, the whole system stops working.

“However, note that traditional cloud-centered IoT architectures have certain inherent vulnerabilities [59], being the most relevant the fact that the cloud is a point of failure: if the cloud is down due to cyberattacks, maintenance or software problems, the whole system stops working.”

• cites [59] [59] Kshetri, N. 'Can Blockchain Strengthen the Internet of Things?', in IT Professional, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 68-72, 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Under high transaction loads, the fog system latency response in [95] is clearly faster than in a cloud-based system.

“The obtained results show that, under high transaction loads, the fog system latency response is clearly faster than in a cloud-based system.”

• cites [95] [95] Samaniego, M., Deters, R. 'Blockchain as a Service for IoT', in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference onInternet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), Chengdu, China, 15-18 Dec. 2016. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The BIoT architecture proposed in [91], [92] reduces communications overhead by removing the PoW consensus mechanism, so every block is mined and appended to the blockchain without additional efforts.

“The reduction in overhead is carried out by removing the PoW consensus mechanism, so every block is mined and appended to the blockchain without additional efforts.”

• cites [91] [91] Dorri, A., Kanhere, S. S., Jurdak, R. 'Blockchain in internet of things: Challenges and Solutions'. Available online: https://arxiv.org/abs/1608. 05187 (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [92] [92] Dorri, A., Kanhere, S. S., Jurdak, R. 'Towards an Optimized BlockChain for IoT', in Proceedings of the IEEE/ACM Second International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and Implementation (IoTDI), Pittsburgh, United States, 18-21 Apr. 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

If the number of IoT connected devices keeps growing, the amount of communications to be handled by a cloud will increase remarkably and cloud network capacity will have to be expanded.

“This offloading is key for IoT applications, since it is estimated that if the number of IoT connected devices keeps on growing at the same rate [1], the amount of communications to be handled by a cloud will increase remarkably and, therefore, the cloud network capacity will have to be expanded.”

• cites [1] [1] Gartner. Report: 'Forecast: The Internet of Things, Worldwide, 2013'. Nov. 2013. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

When implemented on resource-constrained devices, ECC outperforms RSA in terms of speed and power consumption.

“It has already been shown that, when implemented on resource-constrained devices, ECC outperforms RSA in terms of speed [113][115] and power consumption [116]-[119].”

• cites [113]-[115]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [116]-[119]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Tendermint is a consensus algorithm that can host arbitrary application states and can only tolerate up to a 1/3 of failures.

“Tendermint [141] is a consensus algorithm that can host arbitrary application states and can only tolerate up to a 1/3 of failures.”

• cites [141] [141] Kwon, J. 'Tendermint: Consensus without mining (v0.6)'. Available online: https://tendermint.com/static/docs/tendermint.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In RFID-based transportation card systems, the stored information is supposedly anonymous, but in practice it may be collected by third parties.

“This has already been an issue in fields like RFID-based transportation card systems, where the stored information (i.e., trips, balance, personal data) is supposedly anonymous, but in practice it may be collected by third parties [164]-[166].”

• cites [164]-[166]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

The mining process makes the blockchain inefficient in throughput, scalability, and energy consumption, which is not desirable in an IoT network.

“However, this mining process makes the blockchain inefficient in throughput, scalability [78], and in terms of energy consumption, what is not desirable in an IoT network.”

• cites [78] [78] Vukoli´ c, M. 'The Quest for Scalable Blockchain Fabric: Proof-ofWork vs. BFT Replication'. Available online: http://www.vukolic.com/ iNetSec\_2015.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In many IoT applications anonymity is not necessary, but the privacy of the transactions is required in certain scenarios when the collected data may allow for monitoring and predicting people behavior or habits.

“However, note that, in many IoT applications anonymity is not necessary, but the privacy of the transactions is required in certain scenarios when the collected data may allow for monitoring and predicting people behavior or habits.”

May combine two claims.

Zero-knowledge proofs are not immune to attacks and are susceptible to de-anonymization through statistical disclosure attacks, but they improve mixing techniques by avoiding the necessity for a mixing server.

“However, note that these proofs are not immune to attacks [177]. In fact, like in the case of mixing techniques, they are susceptible to de-anonymization through statistical disclosure attacks, but they improve mixing techniques by avoiding the necessity for a mixing server, which can pose a security or performance bottleneck.”

• cites [177] [177] Peng, K. 'Attack against a batch zero-knowledge proof system', in IET Information Security, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 1-5, March 2012. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

PoS is a consensus mechanism that requires less computational power than PoW, so it consumes less energy.

“PoS is a consensus mechanism that requires less computational power than PoW, so it consumes less energy.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Stellar Consensus Protocol (SCP) is an implementation of Federated Byzantine Agreement (FBA), similar to PBFT but nodes only wait for a subset of participants they consider important.

“Stellar Consensus Protocol (SCP) is a implementation of a consensus method called Federated Byzantine Agreement (FBA) [137]. It is similar to PBFT but, whilst in PBFT every node queries all the other nodes and waits for the majority to agree, in SCP the nodes only wait for a subset of the participants that they consider important.”

• cites [137] [137] Mazieres, D. 'The stellar consensus protocol: A federated model for internet-level consensus'. Available online: https://www.stellar.org/ papers/stellar-consensus-protocol.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Identity certification may also be a problem in IoT: if an identity provider is responsible for authorizing entities, it can also be able to block them.

“Identity certification may also be a problem in IoT: if an identity provider is responsible for authorizing entities, it can also be able to block them.”

May combine two claims.

Centralized infrastructure is valid as long as the administrators of the centralized infrastructure are trusted and while the system remains robust against attacks and internal leaks.

“Such an approach is valid as long as the administrators of the centralized infrastructure are trusted and while the system remains robust against attacks [185], [186] and internal leaks.”

• cites [185] [185] Jabir, R. M., Khanji, S. I. R., Ahmad, L. A., Alfandi, O., Said, H. 'Analysis of cloud computing attacks and countermeasures', in Proceedings of the 18th International Conference on Advanced Communication Technology (ICACT), Pyeongchang, South Korea, 31 Jan.-3 Feb. 2016. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [186] [186] Atya, A. O. F., Qian, Z., Krishnamurthy, S. V., Porta, T. L., McDaniel, P., Marvel, L. 'Malicious co-residency on the cloud: Attacks and defense', in Proceedings of the IEEE Conference on Computer Communications, Atlanta, United States, 1-4 May 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Private blockchains, which control user access, reduce the probability of Sybil attacks, so they do not require costly mining algorithms and economic incentives are removed.

“Finally, it is worth noting that private blockchains, which control user access, reduce the probability of Sybil attacks, so they do not require costly mining algorithms and economic incentives are removed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In DPoS, delegates can adjust block size and intervals, and if they behave dishonestly, they can be substituted easily.

“In addition, delegates can adjust block size and intervals, and, if they behave dishonestly, they can be substituted easily.”

• cites [130] [130] DPOS description on Bitshares. Available on: http://docs.bitshares.org/ bitshares/dpos.html (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Zero-knowledge proofs can increase privacy and can be used in IoT applications for authentication or during regular transactions in order to avoid revealing the identity of a user or a device.

“In the case of IoT applications, zeroknowledge proofs can be used for authentication or during regular transactions in order to avoid revealing the identity of a user or a device.”

• cites [173] [173] Zerocoin official web page. Available online: http://zerocoin.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [174] [174] Zerocash official web page. Available online: http://zerocash-project.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [175] [175] Zcash official web page. Available online: https://z.cash (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The mixing service has to be trusted, since a malicious mixer may expose users and, in the case of economic transactions, it may end up stealing coins.

“Moreover, the mixing service has to be trusted, since a malicious mixer may expose users and, in the case of economic transactions, it may end up stealing coins.”

May combine two claims.

Anonymity is not guaranteed in blockchain, and since all transactions are shared, it is possible for third-parties to analyze such transactions and infer the actual identities of the participants.

“This means that anonymity is not guaranteed and, since all transactions are shared, it is possible for third-parties to analyze such transactions and infer the actual identities of the participants [159], [160].”

• cites [159] [159] Meiklejohn, S., Pomarole, M., Jordan, G., Levchenko, K., McCoy, D., Voelker, G. M., Savage, S. 'A fistful of bitcoins: Characterizing payments among men with no names', Communications of the ACM, vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 86-93, April 2016. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [160] [160] Möser, M., Böhme, R., Breuker, D. 'An inquiry into money laundering tools in the Bitcoin ecosystem', in Proceedings of the APWG eCrime Researchers Summit, San Francisco, United States, 17-18 Sep. 2013. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Mixing techniques can enhance privacy, but they are not perfect, since they may be de-anonymized through statistical disclosure attacks.

“These techniques increase privacy, but they are not perfect, since they may be de-anonymized through statistical disclosure attacks [170].”

• cites [170] [170] Danezis, G., Serjantov, A. 'Statistical Disclosure or Intersection Attacks on Anonymity Systems', in Proceedings of the 6th International Workshop on Information Hiding, Toronto, Canada, 23-25 May, 2004, pp. 293308. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

BFTRaft enhances the Raft algorithm by making it Byzantine fault tolerant and by increasing its security against diverse threats.

“Thus, BFTRaft enhances the Raft algorithm by making it Byzantine fault tolerant and by increasing its security against diverse threats.”

• cites [138] [138] Copeland, C., Zhong, H. 'Tangaroa: A Byzantine fault tolerant raft', Available online: http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14au-cs244b/labs/ projects/copeland\_zhong.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [139] [139] Ongaro, D., Ousterhout, J. 'In Search of an Understandable Consensus Algorithm', in Proceedings of USENIX Annual Technical Conference, Philadelphia, United States, 19-20 June, 2014. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

TaPoS is a PoS variant where all nodes that generate transactions contribute to the security of the network.

“Transactions as Proof-of-Stake (TaPoS) [131] is a PoS variant. While in PoS systems only some nodes contribute to the consensus, in TaPoS all nodes that generate transactions contribute to the security of the network.”

• cites [131] [131] Larimer, D. 'Transactions as proof-of-stake'. Available online: https: //bravenewcoin.com/assets/Uploads/TransactionsAsProofOfStake10.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PoA schemes were proposed to address the limitation of PoS systems based on stake age, encouraging both ownership and activity on the blockchain.

“Proof-of-Activity (PoA) consensus algorithms were proposed due to the main limitation of PoS systems based on stake age: it is accumulated even when the node is not connected to the network. Thus, PoA schemes have been proposed to encourage both ownership and activity on the blockchain [132], rewarding stakeholders who participate instead of punishing passive stakeholders.”

• cites [132] [132] Bentov, I., Lee, C., Mizrahi, A., Rosenfeld, M. 'Proof of activity: Extending bitcoin's proof of work via proof of stake', in Proceedings of the <!-- image --> IEEEAccess - 9th Workshop on the Economics of Networks, Systems and Computation, Austin, United States, 16 June 2014. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

PBFT is a consensus algorithm that solves the Byzantine Generals Problem for asynchronous environments.

“PBFT [135] is a consensus algorithm that solves the Byzantine Generals Problem for asynchronous environments.”

• cites [135] [135] Castro, M., Liskov, B. 'Practical Byzantine fault tolerance', in Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation, New Orleans, United States, Feb. 1999. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

According to some researchers, firmware updates can be performed by using a blockchain, which enables IoT devices to spread securely new firmware versions.

“According to some researchers [149] these updates can be performed by using a blockchain, which enables IoT devices to spread securely new firmware versions.”

• cites [149] [149] Boudguiga, A., Bouzerna, N., Granboulan, L., Olivereau, A., Quesnel, F., Roger, A., Sirdey, R. 'Towards Better Availability and Accountability for IoT Updates by Means of a Blockchain', in Proceedings of the IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops, Paris, France, 26-28 Apr. 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

CryptoNote is a protocol that makes use of ring signatures and whose transactions cannot be followed through the blockchain in order to determine who performed them.

“CryptoNote is a protocol that makes use of ring signatures and whose transactions cannot be followed through the blockchain in order to determine who performed them.”

• cites [180] [180] CryptoNote's official web page. Available online: https://cryptonote.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Blockchain technologies are characterized by being decentralized, so, although one node is compromised, the global system should keep on working.

“In contrast, blockchain technologies are characterized by being decentralized, so, although one node is compromised, the global system should keep on working.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Assuming the neutrality of the access controller, it is possible to reduce exposure by establishing an independent blockchain with every entity a user is collaborating with.

“Assuming the neutrality of the access controller, it is possible to reduce exposure by establishing an independent blockchain with every entity a user is collaborating with.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The access controller in a private blockchain is neutral.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

DPoS involves stakeholders selecting certain delegates to generate and validate blocks, and because fewer nodes are involved in block validation, transactions are performed faster than with other schemes.

“Delegated Proof-of-Stake (DPoS) [130] is similar to PoS, but stakeholders instead of being the ones generating and validating blocks, they select certain delegates to do it. Since less nodes are involved in block validation, transactions are performed faster than with other schemes.”

• cites [130] [130] DPOS description on Bitshares. Available on: http://docs.bitshares.org/ bitshares/dpos.html (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Adding a blockchain makes privacy more problematic because transactions are shared among peers, which in certain fields like industry or financial systems allows for monitoring the activity of competitors.

“The issue is even more problematic when adding a blockchain, since transactions are shared among peers, what in certain fields like industry or financial systems, allows for monitoring the activity of competitors.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Sieve is a consensus algorithm proposed by IBM Research that has already been implemented for Hyperledger-Fabric, with the objective of running nondeterministic smart contracts on a permissioned blockchain that makes use of BFT replication.

“Sieve [140] is a consensus algorithm proposed by IBM Research that has already been implemented for Hyperledger-Fabric. Its objective is to run nondeterministic smart contracts on a permissioned blockchain that makes use of BFT replication.”

• cites [140] [140] Cachin, C., Schubert, S., Vukoli´ c, M. 'Non-determinism in Byzantine fault-tolerant replication', in Proceedings of the International Conference on Principles of Distributed Systems (OPODIS 2016), Madrid, Spain, 1316 Dec. 2016. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Privacy is even more complex in IoT environments, since IoT devices can reveal private user data that could be stored in a blockchain whose privacy requirements differ from one country to another.

“Privacy is even more complex in IoT environments, since IoT devices can reveal private user data that could be stored in a blockchain whose privacy requirements differ from one country to another [161].”

• cites [161] [161] Fabiano, N. 'The Internet of Things ecosystem: The blockchain and privacy issues. The challenge for a global privacy standard', in Proceedings of the International Conference on Internet of Things for the Global Community (IoTGC), Funchal, Portugal, 10-13 July 2017, pp. 1-7. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Bitcoin-NG implements a variant of the Bitcoin consensus algorithm aimed at improving scalability, throughput and latency; experiments with 1,000 nodes concluded that Bitcoin-NG scales optimally, only limited by the bandwidth of the nodes and the latency related to the propagation time of the network.

“Bitcoin-NG [142] implements a variant of the Bitcoin consensus algorithm aimed at improving scalability, throughput and latency. The developers performed experiments with 1,000 nodes and concluded that BitcoinNG scales optimally, only limited by the bandwidth of the nodes and the latency related to the propagation time of the network.”

• cites [142] [142] Eyal, I., Gencer, A. E., Sirer, E. G., Van Renesse, R. 'Bitcoin-NG: A Scalable Blockchain Protocol', in Proceedings of the 13th USENIX Symposium on Networked Systems Design and Implementation, Santa Clara, United States, 16-18 Mar. 2016. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Bitcoin block creation times follow a Poisson distribution with a 10-minute mean.

“For example, in the case of Bitcoin, block creation times follow a Poisson distribution with a 10-minute mean [18], although, for avoiding double-spend, merchants are recommended to wait for about an hour, since five or six blocks usually need to be added to the chain before the transaction is confirmed.”

• cites [18] [18] Nakamoto, S. 'Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System'. Available online: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Primecoin's PoW mechanism looks for chains of prime numbers.

“Another interesting example is Primecoin [198], whose PoW mechanism looks for chains of prime numbers.”

• cites [198] [198] Primecoin's official web page. Available online: http://www.primecoin. org (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The most feared attack is a 51-percent attack, where a single miner can control the whole blockchain and perform transactions at wish.

“The most feared attack is a 51-percent attack (also called majority attack), where a single miner can control the whole blockchain and perform transactions at wish.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Proof-of-Space systems require users to allocate memory or disk to show legitimate interest in a service.

“PoS systems require users to show a legitimate interest in a specific service by allocating certain amount of memory or disk.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

To avoid double-spend, merchants are recommended to wait about an hour because five or six blocks usually need to be added before confirmation.

“For example, in the case of Bitcoin, block creation times follow a Poisson distribution with a 10-minute mean [18], although, for avoiding double-spend, merchants are recommended to wait for about an hour, since five or six blocks usually need to be added to the chain before the transaction is confirmed.”

• cites [18] [18] Nakamoto, S. 'Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System'. Available online: https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

VISA network can handle up to 24,000 transactions per second.

“For instance, VISA network (VisaNet) can handle up to 24,000 transactions per second [207].”

• cites [207] [207] VISA claims about the number of transactions handled by VisaNet. Available online: https://usa.visa.com/run-your-business/ small-business-tools/retail.html (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Availability is the most straightforward security characteristic to be fulfilled by blockchains because they are distributed systems and keep working when some nodes are under attack.

“The third characteristic of security is availability, but it is actually the most straightforward to be fulfilled by blockchains, since they are conceived by design to be distributed systems, what allows them to keep on working even when some nodes are under attack.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A 51-percent attack also affects data integrity.

“Obviously, this kind of attack also affects data integrity.”

May combine two claims.

Mini-blockchains may allow IoT nodes to interact directly with a blockchain because they only keep the latest transactions and lower the computational requirements of a full node.

“To reduce the number of updates, mini-blokchains [201] may allow IoT nodes to interact directly with a blockchain, since they only keep the latest transactions and lower the computational requirements of a full node.”

• cites [201] [201] Bruce, J. D. 'The Mini-Blockchain Scheme'. Available online: https://www.weusecoins.com/assets/pdf/library/The\ %20Mini-Blockchain\%20Scheme.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Although many sources indicate blockchains are permanent storage for data that cannot be altered, this is not true in practice for preserving integrity in very exceptional cases.

“Therefore, although many information sources indicate that blockchains are a permanent storage for data that cannot be altered, it is actually not true in practice for preserving integrity in very exceptional cases.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Other consensus methods like Proof-of-Stake or Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance have been proposed to reduce energy consumption relative to PoW.

“Other consensus methods have been proposed to reduce energy consumption respect to PoW, like Proof-of-Stake or Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (both described in Section IV-D).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In IoT applications, data integrity is essential and is usually provided by third-parties.

“In IoT applications, data integrity is also essential and it is usually provided by third-parties.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Gridcoin rewards volunteer scientific research computing with coins, but uses PoS as consensus.

“Some initiatives based on blockchains, like Gridcoin [197], reward volunteer scientific research computing with coins (although, as a consensus algorithm, Gridcoin uses PoS).”

• cites [197] [197] Gridcoin's official web page. Available online: http://gridcoin.us (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A massive infrastructure like the one involved in IoT could be harnessed to solve problems while making use of a blockchain.

“Thus, a massive infrastructure like the one involved in IoT could also be harnessed to solve problems while making use of a blockchain.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Other hashing algorithms like Blake-256 have been suggested, and some blockchains can use different hashing algorithms (e.g., Myriad), but further analyses are needed for IoT devices.

“Other hashing algorithms have been suggested, like Blake-256 [204], and some blockchains are able to make use of different hashing algorithms (e.g., Myriad [205]), but further analyses should be carried out on the performance and optimization of modern hash functions to be used on IoT devices.”

• cites [204] [204] Aumasson, J.-P., Henzen, L., Meier, W., Phan, R. C.-W. 'SHA-3 Proposal BLAKE,submission to NIST'. Available online: http://131002.net/blake/ (accesed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [205] [205] Myriad. Available online: http://myriadcoin.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Proof-of-Space has been suggested as a greener alternative to PoW.

“Proof-of-Space (PoS) (also known as Proof-of-Capacity (PoC)) has also been suggested as a greener alternative to PoW [199].”

• cites [199] [199] Dziembowski, S., Faust, S., Kolmogorov, V., Pietrzak, K. 'Proofs of Space', in Proceedings of the 35th Annual Cryptology Conference on Advances in Cryptology, Santa Barbara, United States, 16-20 Aug. 2015, pp. 585-605. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Proof-of-Space has been implemented by cryptocurrencies like Burstcoin.

“This mechanism has already been implemented by cryptocurrencies like Burst-coin [200].”

• cites [200] [200] Burst-coin official web page. Available online: https://www.burst-coin. org (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

SHA-256 is the reference hashing algorithm due to being used by Bitcoin, but Scrypt and X11 are faster and can reduce mining energy consumption.

“In terms of hashing algorithms, SHA-256 is the reference due to being the one used by Bitcoin, but new algorithms like Scrypt [202] or X11 [203] are faster and thus can reduce mining energy consumption.”

• cites [202] [202] Original Scrypt function for Tarsnap. Available online: http://www. tarsnap.com/scrypt.html (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [203] [203] X11 official documentation for Dash. Available online: https://dashpay. atlassian.net/wiki/spaces/DOC/pages/1146918/X11 (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Google's Certificate Transparency provides a framework for monitoring and auditing SSL certificates in almost real time.

“Specifically, Google's Certificate Transparency [189] provides a framework for monitoring and auditing SSL certificates in almost real time.”

• cites [189] [189] Google's Certificate Transparency official web page. Available online: https://www.certificate-transparency.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A data integrity service framework for cloud-based IoT applications using blockchain is proposed in [190], eliminating the need for trusting third-parties.

“To avoid such a dependence, in [190] it is proposed a data integrity service framework for cloud-based IoT applications that makes use of blockchain technology, thus eliminating the need for trusting such third-parties.”

• cites [190] [190] Liu, B., Yu, X. L., Chen, S., Xu, X., Zhu, L. 'Blockchain Based Data Integrity Service Framework for IoT Data', in Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Web Services, Honolulu, United States, 2530 June 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Litecoin uses scrypt, which is slightly faster than SHA-256.

“In relation to the consensus latency, it can be stated that the complexity of the consensus process is more important in terms of latency than individual hashing, but different blockchains, like the one that supports Litecoin [34], have opted for using scrypt, a hashing algorithm that is slightly faster than SHA-256.”

• cites [34] [34] Litecoin official web page. Available online: https://litecoin.com (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Some authors suggested that the power consumed by proofs of work could be used for something useful while providing the required PoW.

“Regarding mining, some authors suggested that the power consumed by proofs of work could be used for something useful while providing at the same time the required PoW [196].”

• cites [196] [196] Ball, M., Rosen, A., Sabin, M., Vasudevan, P. N. 'Proofs of Useful Work'. Available online: https://eprint.iacr.org/2017/203.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

Bitcoin's blockchain has a theoretical maximum of 7 transactions per second, but can be increased by processing larger blocks or modifying node behavior.

“For instance, Bitcoin's blockchain has a theoretical maximum of 7 transactions per second [78], although it can be increased by processing larger blocks or by modifying certain aspects of the node behavior when accepting transactions [206].”

• cites [78] [78] Vukoli´ c, M. 'The Quest for Scalable Blockchain Fabric: Proof-ofWork vs. BFT Replication'. Available online: http://www.vukolic.com/ iNetSec\_2015.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [206] [206] Courtois, N. T., Emirdag, P., Nagy, D. A. 'Could Bitcoin transactions be 100x faster?', in Proceedings of the11th International Conference on Security and Cryptography (SECRYPT), Vienna, Austria, 28-30 Aug. 2014. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

P2P communications require edge devices to be powered on continuously, which could lead to waste energy.

“P2P communications require edge devices that have to be powered on continuously, which could lead to waste energy [191], [192].”

• cites [191] [191] Zhou, Z., Xie, M., Zhu, T., Xu, W., Yi, P., Huang, Z., Zhang, Q., Xiao, S. 'EEP2P: An energy-efficient and economy-efficient P2P network protocol', in Proceedings of the International Green Computing Conference, Dallas, United States, 3-5 Nov. 2014. - sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

• cites [192] [192] Sharifi, L., Rameshan, N., Freitag, F., Veiga, L. 'Energy Efficiency Dilemma: P2P-cloud vs. Datacenter', in Proceedings of the IEEE 6th International Conference on Cloud Computing Technology and Science, Singapore, Singapore, 15-18 Dec. 2014. - sourceNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

CONIKS is a key management system created to liberate users from encryption key management.

“An interesting initiative related to this topic is CONIKS [187], a key management system created to liberate users from encryption key management.”

• cites [187] [187] CONIKS official web page. Available online: https://coniks.cs.princeton. edu (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

P2P communications are essential for a blockchain to communicate peers and distribute blocks; more updates increase energy consumption for communications.

“In relation to P2P communications, they are essential for a blockchain to communicate peers and distribute blocks, so the more updates a blockchain receives, the more energy consumption is dedicated to communications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Energy efficient protocols for P2P networks have been proposed, but the issue still needs further study for IoT networks.

“Some researchers proposed energy efficient protocols for P2P networks [193]-[195], but the issue still has to be studied further for the specific case of IoT networks.”

• cites [193]-[195]Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Certificate Transparency uses a distributed system based on Merkle hash trees that allows third-parties to audit and verify whether a certificate is valid.

“The solution uses a distributed system based on Merkle hash trees that allows third-parties to audit and verify whether a certificate is valid.”

• cites [189] [189] Google's Certificate Transparency official web page. Available online: https://www.certificate-transparency.org (Accessed on 10 April 2018). -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

May combine two claims.

In a 51-percent attack, data are available, but availability for performing transactions can be blocked by the attacker.

“In this situation, data are available, but the availability for performing transactions can be blocked by the attacker that controls the blockchain.”

May combine two claims.

IoT deployments may require a blockchain network able to manage large amounts of transactions per time unit; this is a limitation in certain networks.

“IoT deployments may require a blockchain network able to manage large amounts of transactions per time unit. This is a limitation in certain networks.”

May combine two claims.

For an individual user, maintaining confidentiality depends on good management of private keys, because an attacker needs the private key together with the public key to impersonate the user or steal from them.

“For an individual user, the key for maintaining confidentiality is a good management of his/her private keys, since it is what an attacker needs in conjunction with the public key to impersonate someone or steal something from him/her.”

May combine two claims.

Miniblockchain uses an account tree storing current state of every user; only most recent transaction stored with account tree; blockchain only grows when new users added.

“Such a kind of blockchain introduces the use of an account tree, which stores the current state of every user of the blockchain. Thus, only the most recent transaction has to be stored on the blockchain together with the account tree. Therefore, the blockchain only grows when new users are added to the blockchain.”

• cites [183] [183] França, B. F. 'Homomorphic Mini-blockchain Scheme', April 2015. Available online: http://cryptonite.info/files/HMBC.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

• cites [201] [201] Bruce, J. D. 'The Mini-Blockchain Scheme'. Available online: https://www.weusecoins.com/assets/pdf/library/The\ %20Mini-Blockchain\%20Scheme.pdf (Accessed on 10 April 2018) -Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Blockchains can be forked for administrative or versioning purposes; after fork, transactions between chains are not easy.

“Blockchains can be forked for administrative or versioning purposes. Once a blockchain is forked, it is not easy to carry out transactions between both chains.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Authentication across multiple authorities requires Federated Identity Management.

“For instance, authentication across multiple authorities or organizations requires Federated Identity Management (FIM) [209].”

• cites [209] [209] Birrell, E., Schneider, F. B. 'Federated Identity Management Systems: A Privacy-Based Characterization', in IEEE Security &amp; Privacy, vol. 11, no. 5, pp. 36-48, Sept.-Oct. 2013. <!-- image --> TIAGO M. FERNÁNDEZ-CARAMÉS (S'08M'12-SM'15) received his MSc degree and PhD degrees in Computer Science in 2005 and 2011 from University of A Coruña, Spain. Since 2005 he has worked as a researcher and professor for the Department of Computer Engineering of the University of A Coruña inside the Group of Electronic Technology and Communications (GTEC). His current research interests include IoT sNot checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In IoT, sensor values may be stored in private blockchain while financial transactions supported by Ethereum or Bitcoin.

“This can also happen in an IoT scenario, where, for instance, sensor values may be stored in a private blockchain, while financial transactions among nodes that provide services may be supported by Ethereum's or Bitcoin's blockchain.”

May combine two claims.

Using lightweight nodes requires powerful nodes to maintain blockchain for resource-constrained nodes, implying data centralization.

“However, this approach requires the existence in the IoT hierarchy of certain powerful nodes that would maintain the blockchain for the resource-constrained nodes, what implies a certain degree of data centralization.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Blockchain can offer IoT a platform for distributing trusted information that defies non-collaborative organizational structures.

“In this ecosystem, blockchain can offer to IoT a platform for distributing trusted information that defy non-collaborative organizational structures.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Value and security of a blockchain increases with number of users, making 51-percent attacks more difficult.

“In addition, note that the value and security of a blockchain increases with the number of users, also being more difficult to perform the feared 51-percent attacks.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Broader use of BIoT will require additional technological research advances and collaboration of organizations and governments.

“We can conclude that BIoT is still in its nascent stage, and beyond the earliest BIoT developments and deployments, broader use will require additional technological research advances to address the specific demands, together with the collaboration of organizations and governments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Miner adoption rate influences network transaction processing capacity; in BIoT, miner computational power should be high enough to handle IoT transactions.

“Moreover, note that miner adoption rate also influences the capacity of a network to process transactions, so, in a BIoT deployment, the computational power brought by miners should be high enough to handle the transactions received from the IoT devices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

Collaborative implementations and international standards for trust and information protection will be needed.

“The adoption of collaborative implementations and the use of international standards for collaborative trust and information protection (i.e., access control, authentication and authorization) will be needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Miners have evolved from CPU-based systems to GPUs, FPGAs, ASICs.

“For instance, miners have evolved from simple CPUbased systems, to more sophisticated equipment that harnesses the power of Graphics Processing Units (GPUs), Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) or ApplicationSpecific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) [208].”

• cites [208] [208] Bedford Taylor, M. 'The Evolution of Bitcoin Hardware' in Computer, vol. 50, no. 9, pp. 58-66, 22 Sep. 2017. -Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Legal rules still need to be developed to enforce smart contracts and resolve disputes.

“Legal rules have still to be developed to enforce smart contracts and resolve disputes properly.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Many state-of-the-art approaches that address trust depend on inter-domain policies and control.

“Many state-of-the-art approaches that address issues such as trust depend on inter-domain policies and control.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

Higher LoAs will be needed.

“Thus, higher LoAs will be needed.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

There are significant challenges in development and deployment of existing and planned BIoT systems that need further investigation.

“Despite the promising benefits and the brilliant foreseen future of BIoT, there are significant challenges in the development and deployment of existing and planned systems that will need further investigation:”

May combine two claims.

Blockchains grow periodically as users store transactions, leading to larger initial download times and need for more powerful miners with larger persistent memories.

“Blockchains grow periodically as users store their transactions, what derives into larger initial download times and in having to make use of more powerful miners with larger persistent memories.”

May combine two claims.

Lightweight nodes can perform transactions without storing the blockchain, avoiding storage waste.

“This issue could be avoided by using lightweight nodes, which are able to perform transactions on the blockchain, but who do not have to store it.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

There is no one-size-fits-all solution for a BIoT application.

“We can conclude that, as in any technological innovation, there is no one-size-fits-all solution for a BIoT application.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Required LoA is based on risks, consequences of authentication error, misuse of credentials, impact, and likelihood.

“The required LoA (from LoA 1 to LoA 4), as defined by the ISO/IEC 29115:2013 standard, is mainly based on risks, on the consequences of an authentication error and/or the misuse of credentials, on the resultant impact, and on their likelihood of occurrence.”

• cites ISO/IEC 29115:2013Not checked yet

  Not checked in the free run.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

BIoT scenarios face specific technical requirements that differ from cryptocurrency implementations in aspects like energy efficiency and architecture.

“These BIoT scenarios face specific technical requirements that differ from implementations involving cryptocurrencies in several aspects like energy efficiency in resource-constrained devices or the need for a specific architecture.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Adoption of BIoT opens a wide area of short- and medium-term potential applications that could disrupt industry and economy.

“Nevertheless, the adoption of the paradigm opens a wide area of short- and medium-term potential applications that could disrupt the industry and probably, the economy, as we know it today.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Governments may demand strong link between real-world and online identity; international IoT transactions make it unclear who should perform identification.

“Governments may demand a strong link between real-world and online identity. Moreover, since IoT transactions can be carried out internationally, it may not be clear who should perform the identification.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

It will be needed to create a comprehensive trust framework or infrastructure that can fulfill all requirements for blockchain in IoT systems.

“Blockchain infrastructure: it will be needed to create a comprehensive trust framework or infrastructure that can fulfill all the requirements for the use of blockchain in IoT systems.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Some developers may fake their blockchain performance to attract investors.

“For instance, it is possible that some developers fake their blockchain performance in order to attract investors driven by the expected profits.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Transaction and block size must be scaled according to bandwidth limitations of IoT networks; many small transactions increase communication energy consumption, while few large ones may involve payloads too big for some IoT devices.

“In addition, note that transaction and block size have to be scaled according to the bandwidth limitations of IoT networks: many small transactions would increase the energy consumption associated with communications, while a few large ones may involve big payloads that cannot be handled by some IoT devices.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Blockchain infrastructure requires decentralized storage, communication protocols, mining hardware, address management, network administration.

“Regarding the infrastructure, certain elements are required to make the blockchain work properly, including decentralized storage, communication protocols, mining hardware, address management or network administration.”

May combine two claims.

Mining boycott can happen when conspiring miners exceed 51%; small chains and those delegating to subset of miners are susceptible.

“This issue can happen when the number of conspiring miners are above 51 percent of the total, so small chains and blockchains that delegate their decisions on a subset of miners are susceptible to this kind of boycotts.”

May combine two claims.

Miners decide which transactions are stored, so can censor for economic or ideological reasons.

“Miners end up deciding which transactions are or are not stored in the blockchain, so they are able to censor certain transactions for economic or ideological reasons.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Industry is progressively fulfilling these needs by creating specific equipment for blockchain applications.

“Part of these needs are being fulfilled by the industry progressively, creating specific equipment for blockchain applications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Blockchain technologies face design limitations in transaction capacity, validation protocols, and smart contract implementation.

“Moreover, blockchain technologies face design limitations in transaction capacity, in validation protocols or in the implementation of smart contracts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

BIoT is still in its nascent stage.

“We can conclude that BIoT is still in its nascent stage, and beyond the earliest BIoT developments and deployments, broader use will require additional technological research advances to address the specific demands, together with the collaboration of organizations and governments.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Proliferation of blockchains has led to necessity of dealing with several at same time.

“In some cases, the proliferation of blockchains has derived into the necessity of having to deal with several of them at the same time.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Shaping the regulatory environment is one of the biggest issues to unlock the potential value of BIoT.

“Organizational, governance, regulatory and legal aspects: besides technological challenges, shaping the regulatory environment (i.e., decentralized ownership, international jurisdiction) is one the biggest issues to unlock the potential value of BIoT.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

There are still issues regarding scalability, security, cryptographic development, and stability of novel BIoT applications.

“Complex technical challenges: there are still issues to be addressed regarding the scalability, security, cryptographic development and stability requirements of novel BIoT applications.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

BIoT adoption will require stakeholder compromise for full interoperability and integration with legacy systems.

“Interoperability and standardization: the adoption of BIoT will require the compromise of all stakeholders in order to achieve full interoperability (i.e., from data to policy interoperability) and integration with legacy systems.”