CoChat
Sign Up
Cited by 15Free Will and AgencyPhilosophy and Theoretical ScienceBiofield Effects and Biophysics

The electromagnetic will

Open access
McFadden, Johnjoe·2021·NeuroSci
DOI 10.3390/neurosci2030021
Open this paper in CoChat — free accountOpen PDF

Abstract

The conscious electromagnetic information (cemi) field theory proposes that the seat of consciousness is the brain’s electromagnetic (EM) field that integrates information from trillions of firing neurons. What we call free will is its output. The cemi theory also proposes that the brain has two streams. Most actions are initiated by the first non-conscious stream that is composed of neurons that are insulated from EM field influences. These non-conscious involuntary actions are thereby invisible to our EM field-located thoughts. The theory also proposes that voluntary actions are driven by neurons that receive EM field inputs and are thereby visible to our EM field-located thoughts. I review the extensive evidence for EM field/ephaptic coupling between neurons and the increasing evidence that EM fields in the brain are a cause of behaviour. I conclude by arguing that though this EM field-driven will is not free, in the sense of being acausal, it nevertheless corresponds to the very real experience of our conscious mind being in control of our voluntary actions. Will is not an illusion. It is our experience of control by our EM field-located mind. It is an immaterial, yet physical, will.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

The paper argues that the conscious electromagnetic information (cemi) field theory identifies consciousness with the brain’s electromagnetic (EM) field and treats free will as the EM field’s causal influence on neurons that produce voluntary actions. It reviews evidence for ephaptic/field coupling and concludes that this will is not acausal “free” but is a real experience of EM field-level control.

Key findings

  • The cemi field theory proposes that consciousness is the brain’s EM field, generated by ion movements in roughly 86 billion neurons and 125 trillion synapses, and that voluntary actions are driven by EM field-sensitive neurons while most non-conscious actions are initiated by an EM-insulated stream.
  • The paper cites experimental evidence that weak electric fields modulate neuronal firing: a 40 Hz field delayed CA3 spike latency from ~38 ms to ~160 ms; endogenous fields with peak strength ~2 mV/mm and applied fields as weak as 0.25–0.5 mV/mm modified neocortical network activity; ~1 mV/mm fields shifted transmembrane potential by ~0.5 mV and phase-locked spikes; and a single climbing fibre suppressed around 100 Purkinje cells via ephaptic coupling.
  • The theory predicts that synchronous firing correlates with consciousness, that conscious stimuli produce EM field modulations strong enough to influence motor neurons, and that unconscious stimuli do not; the author states there is abundant evidence for predictions 1–8, while predictions 8–13 remain to be tested.
  • The author concludes that will is not an illusion but is the experience of control by the brain’s EM field, and that this EM field-driven will is causal and compatible with determinism rather than being acausal.

Methods

  • Theoretical/review article with no new empirical data or sample; it synthesizes prior experimental and theoretical literature to argue for the cemi field theory and compare it with Integrated Information Theory and Global Workspace Theory.
  • Main analysis is conceptual: it reviews ephaptic/field coupling studies, TMS, EEG/MEG, brain-computer interfaces, and philosophical arguments about free will and determinism.
  • No formal mathematical model or statistical analysis is presented; the paper lists predictions of the theory.

Limitations

  • The author states that more theoretical, experimental, and philosophical research is needed: the mathematical structure of the theory needs work to deliver accurate testable predictions, more could be investigated on brain tissue–EM field interaction, AI/field-computing computers may be a future avenue, and more work is needed on what it might feel like to be the brain’s endogenous EM field.
  • The author notes that predictions 8–13 remain to be tested, and that detecting field-based signals is challenging because EM fields are intrinsic to neuronal excitation and there are no EM field antagonists.
  • Evident from the text: as a review/argument, the paper reports no new experiments, no formal model, and no direct causal manipulation of endogenous brain EM fields in humans.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/neurosci2030021

Cites

77 of 77 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 30 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingnone given

    There is abundant evidence that ephaptic/field effects modify neural firing in circuits involved in voluntary motor actions, such as in the cerebellar cortex.

    “As reviewed in this article, there is abundant evidence that ephaptic/field effects modify neural firing in circuits that are involved in voluntary motor actions, such as in the cerebellar cortex.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    Users of the first commercially available CMI report that the system feels natural as if they willed the computer-controlled actions.

    “Users of the first commercially available CMI (https://www.next-mind.com,accessed date 25 August 2021) that uses helmet-mounted EEG sensors placed above the visual cortex to detect to user's centre of focus on a computer screen and thereby control the user's digital environment, report that the system feels”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites https://www.next-mind.com

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingcitation

    There is abundant evidence for predictions 1-8 of the cemi field theory.

    “As described here and in my earlier publications, there is abundant evidence for predictions 1-8.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [13,19,[26][27][28][29]83]

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Findingreasoning

    Our subjective experience is not of making decisions that are free in the sense of having no preceding cause.

    “Our subjective experience is not of making decisions that are free in the sense of having no preceding cause.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    The cemi field theory proposes a physical mechanism whereby the contents of the brain EM field global workspace generate motor outputs through the influence of the brain's EM field on neural firing that lead to motor actions.

    “Last, and once again in contrast to GWT, the cemi field theory proposes a physical mechanism whereby the contents of the (brain EM field) global workspace generates motor outputs through the influence of the brain's EM field on neural firing that lead to motor actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 17
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The cemi field theory provides many testable predictions, most of which have been validated by experimental findings.

    “Again, unlike most other theories of consciousness, the theory provides many testable predictions, most of which have been validated by experimental findings.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The existence of an EM field in the brain has been known since the nineteenth century and is routinely detected by EEG and MEG.

    “The existence of an electromagnetic (EM) field in the brain has been known since the nineteenth century and is routinely detected by medical scanning techniques such as EEG and MEG.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The cemi field theory predicts that painful stimuli stimulate large perturbations in the brain's EM field, and this prediction is confirmed by many EEG and MEG experiments.

    “The cemi field theory easily accounts for this phenomenon by predicting that painful stimuli stimulate large (though likely informationally simple) perturbations in the brain's EM field.This prediction is confirmed by many EEG and MEG experiments, for example [54].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [54] Kakigi, 1995, Pain-related magnetic fields following painful CO2 laser stimulation in man, Neurosci. Lett. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TMS-induced electric fields are estimated to be in the range of 50 to 130 mV/mm and 20-150 mV/mm, which are in the range of local field potentials and may be the driver of TMS effects.

    “TMS-induced electric fields (orthogonal to the magnetic field induced by coils) cannot be measured directly but, from modelling studies, are estimated to be in the range of 50 to 130 mV/mm [65] and 20-150 mV/mm [66], which are in the range of local field potentials (LFPs) measured with external electrodes (see below) so may be the driver of TMS effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [65] Epstein, 1990, The outcomes movement—Will it get us where we want to go?, N. Engl. J. Med. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [66] Ruohonen, 2000, Coil design for real and sham transcranial magnetic stimulation, IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    TMS has a variety of cognitive and therapeutic effects.

    “TMS has been shown to have a variety of cognitive [63] and therapeutic [64] effects.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [63] Walsh, 2000, Transcranial magnetic stimulation in cognitive neuroscience–virtual lesion, chronometry, and functional connectivity, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [64] Wassermann, 2012, Transcranial magnetic brain stimulation: Therapeutic promises and scientific gaps, Pharmacol. Ther. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The EM field-driven will is not free in the sense of being acausal, but it corresponds to the real experience of our conscious mind being in control of our voluntary actions.

    “I conclude by arguing that though this EM field-driven will is not free, in the sense of being acausal, it nevertheless corresponds to the very real experience of our conscious mind being in control of our voluntary actions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    IIT predicts that systems with high integrated information, such as the immune system and AI systems, are conscious, whereas the cemi field theory insists they are not conscious because their information processing is only causally, rather than physically, integrated.

    “IIT predicts that each of these systems is conscious, whereas the cemi field theory insists that, as their information processing is only causally, rather than physically integrated, they are not conscious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The motion of ions in and out of around 86 billion neurons and 125 trillion synapses in the human brain generates the most complex EM field in the known universe, routinely measured by EEG and MEG.

    “The motion of ions moving in and out of around 86 billion neurons and 125 trillion synapses in the human brain thereby generates the most the most complex EM field in the known universe, and one that is routinely measured in brain scanning techniques such as EEG and MEG.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Free will is the influence of the brain's EM field-based integration on our actions.

    “In reality, the brain' EM field is a product of the physical integration of the activity of many billions of neurons and free will is then the influence of that EM field-based integration on our actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Consciousness is how we experience EM field inputs into neuronal computation.

    “Consciousness is how we experience EM field inputs into neuronal computation.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Weak external electric fields shift the transmembrane potential of adjacent neurons and phase-lock their spiking.

    “Application of weak oscillating external fields (of similar magnitude and frequency as endogenous fields) caused measurable changes in the intracellular fields and extracellular EFs and thereby shifted the transmembrane potential of adjacent neurones by ~0.5 mV.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [69] Anastassiou, 2015, Ephaptic coupling to endogenous electric field activity: Why bother?, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    EM field communication between neurons is an ancient mode of neuronal communication, found in vertebrates, insects, arthropods, and molluscs.

    “The first point is that it is clearly a very ancient mode of neuronal communication as it is found not only in vertebrates but also in insects [75], arthropods [76] and molluscs [77].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [75] Su, 2012, Non-synaptic inhibition between grouped neurons in an olfactory circuit, Nature source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] Berdan, R.C. (1987). Intercellular communication in arthropods. Cell-to-Cell Communication, Springer. source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [77] Ramon, 1978, Ephaptic transmission in squid giant axons, Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The cemi field is the most complex and dynamic EM object in the known universe.

    “That pressure is driven by the most complex and dynamic EM object in the known universe, the cemi field, to deliver actions that are better informed than those driven solely by neuronal wires, providing James' 'invaluable service'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The EM field-insensitive stream is the non-conscious mind, which performs automatic (unwilled) tasks such as coordinating the precise movements of lips and tongue for making the sound of words.

    “We call the EM field insensitive stream our non-conscious mind that performs automatic (unwilled) tasks such as coordinating the precise movements of our lips and tongue for making the sound of words.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Natural selection would inevitably have acted to enhance EM field communication when it provided an advantage and inhibit EM field communication when it interfered with the function of a neuronal network.

    “With positive and negative impacts, natural selection would inevitably have acted to enhance EM field communication when it provided an advantage and inhibit EM field communication when it interfered with the function of a neuronal network.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Free will is the influence of the EM field-based integration of many billions of neurons on our actions.

    “In reality, the brain' EM field is a product of the physical integration of the activity of many billions of neurons and free will is then the influence of that EM field-based integration on our actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Interpretationnone given

    The cemi field theory is consistent with all known facts of conscious experience.

    “The cemi field theory provides a physical theory of consciousness that, as far as I am aware, is consistent will all known facts of conscious experience.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The cemi field theory provides a physical rather than merely a theoretical description of consciousness, unlike Integrated Information Theory or Global Workspace theory.

    “Unlike other popular theories of consciousness, such as Integrated Information Theory or Global Workspace theory, the cemi field theory provides a physical rather than merely a theoretical description of consciousness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    Negative influences of EM fields on neuronal communication include all the varieties of undesirable feedback familiar to sound and electrical engineers.

    “Negative influences of EM fields on neuronal communication include all the varieties of undesirable”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The will is our experience of the interaction between the brain's EM field and neurons that leads to motor actions, such as speech.

    “The cemi field theory proposes that the will is our experience of the interaction between the brain's EM field and neurons that leads to motor actions, such as speech.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The influence of the brain's EM field on neurons may sometimes prompt neurons to fire or inhibit neurons from firing.

    “The influence may sometimes prompt neurons to fire or, at other times, inhibit neurons from firing.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The cemi field theory provides a clear physical distinction between conscious and non-conscious neural activity and between non-conscious and willed actions.

    “It also, for the first time, provides a clear physical distinction between conscious and non-conscious neural activity as well as between non-conscious and willed actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The EM field-sensitive stream outputs voluntary actions driven by our will and is consciousness.

    “We call the EM field-sensitive stream that outputs voluntary actions driven by our”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The will is causal and differs from non-conscious involuntary actions because the conscious mind, the brain's EM field, is in the driving seat exerting pressure that leads to actions.

    “It is causal, but it differs from our experience of non-conscious involuntary actions because our conscious mind-the brain's EM field-is in the driving seat exerting the pressure that leads to actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning

    Will is our experience of EM field-level control.

    “It is our experience of EM field-level control.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

    Interpretationreasoning

    The pressure from the cemi field delivers actions that are better informed than those driven solely by neuronal wires.

    “That pressure is driven by the most complex and dynamic EM object in the known universe, the cemi field, to deliver actions that are better informed than those driven solely by neuronal wires, providing James' 'invaluable service'.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The human mind, and probably all minds, has an EM field-insensitive stream associated with asynchronously firing and non-conscious activities and an EM field-sensitive stream associated with synchronously firing neurons.

    “This is of course precisely what we find in the human mind and probably in all minds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The most popular BMI approaches use EEG signals, the external manifestation of the brain's endogenous EM field, as the interface between brain and machine motor outputs, effectively implementing the same informational loop from EM field-encoded neuronal information to motor actions as proposed in the cemi field theory.

    “The most popular BMI approaches utilize EEG signals-the external manifestation of the brain's endogenous EM field-as the interface between the brain and machine motor outputs [81], effectively implementing the same informational loop from EM field-encoded neuronal information to motor actions as is proposed in the cemi field theory.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [81] Mahmood, M., Kwon, S., Kim, Y.-S., Siriaraya, P., Choi, J., Boris, O., Kang, K., Jun Yu, K., Jang, Y.C., and Ang, C.S. (2021). Wireless Soft Scalp Electronics and Virtual Reality System for Motor Imagery-based Brain-Machine Interfaces. Adv. Sci. source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    The brain's EM field is a product of the physical integration of the activity of many billions of neurons.

    “In reality, the brain' EM field is a product of the physical integration of the activity of many billions of neurons and free will is then the influence of that EM field-based integration on our actions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Libet detected brain activity that predicted a voluntary action many hundreds of milliseconds before the person who willed that action knew they had actually willed it.

    “The notion of free will has of course also been challenged by the experiments performed by the neurophysiologist, Benjamin Libet in the 1980s, who detected brain activity that predicted a voluntary action many hundreds of milliseconds before the person who willed that action knew that they had actually willed it [84,85].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [84] Libet, 1983, Time of conscious intention to act in relation to onset of cerebral activity (readiness-potential). The unconscious initiation of a freely voluntary act, Brain source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [85] Libet, 1982, Readiness-potentials preceding unrestricted ‘spontaneous’ vs. pre-planned voluntary acts, Electroencephalogr. Clin. Neurophysiol. source

      Not checked in the free run.

30 of 30

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The brain has two streams: a non-conscious stream and a voluntary stream.

    “The cemi theory also proposes that the brain has two streams.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The non-conscious stream is composed of neurons that are insulated from EM field influences.

    “Most actions are initiated by the first non-conscious stream that is composed of neurons that are insulated from EM field influences.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    Most actions are initiated by the non-conscious stream.

    “Most actions are initiated by the first non-conscious stream that is composed of neurons that are insulated from EM field influences.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    EM/field ephaptic communication is visible to natural selection.

    “with the only the assumption that EM/field ephaptic commination is visible to natural selection”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Experiments have demonstrated that synchronous neuronal firing has a functional role in the brain and that the brain's endogenous EM field contributes to recruiting neurons into synchronously firing networks.

    “For example, Refs. [26,76,77] reported experiments demonstrating that synchronous neuronal firing has a functional role in the brain and that the brain’s endogenous EM field contributes to recruiting neurons into synchronously firing networks.”

    From Quantum Models of Consciousness from a Quantum Information Science Perspective (2025) · cites this paper as [77]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Reference 69 is described as both an experiment and a review

    Minor

    The text cites reference 69 for an experimental study attributed to Koch's laboratory, but later explicitly identifies that same reference as a review.

  • TMS field estimate cites an unrelated reference

    Minor

    The first numerical estimate of TMS-induced electric fields cites reference 65, whose listed article is about the outcomes movement rather than TMS.

  • Immune-network claim cites an intrusion-detection paper

    Minor

    Reference 49 is cited for the hierarchical structure of immune networks, but its listed title concerns feature selection for intrusion detection systems.

  • Prediction 8 is both supported and untested

    Minor

    The paper says there is abundant evidence for predictions 1-8, then says predictions 8-13 remain to be tested. Both statements include prediction 8.

  • The abstract claims more firing neurons than the brain contains

    Minor

    The abstract says the field integrates information from trillions of firing neurons, but the paper later gives the total number of neurons as around 86 billion.

  • Citation for Popper's collaboration omits Popper

    Minor

    The text attributes work by Popper with Lindahl and Århem to reference 3, but the listed authors of reference 3 are Lindahl and Arhem alone. Those three authors are instead listed under reference 2.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

3 of the 80 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Libet, 1994, A testable field theory of mind-brain interaction, J. Conscious. Stud., 1, 119
  2. McFadden, 2002, Synchronous firing and its influence on the brain’s electromagnetic field: Evidence for an electromagnetic theory of consciousness, J. Conscious. Stud., 9, 23
  3. Pockett, S. (2000). The Nature of Consciousness: A. Hypothesis, Writers Club Press.
  4. McDaid, A.F., Greene, D., and Hurley, N. (2011). Normalized mutual information to evaluate overlapping community finding algorithms. arXiv.
  5. Baars, B.J. (1988). A Cognitive Theory of Consciousness, Cambridge University Press.
  6. James, W. (1988). Manuscript Lectures, Harvard University Press.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
McFadden, J.
Affiliations
University of Surrey (GB)
Corresponding author
McFadden, Johnjoe
ORCID
McFadden, Johnjoe
Venue
NeuroSci
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2021-08-29
Volume
2
Issue
3
Pages
291-304
ISSN
2673-4087 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/neurosci2030021
OpenAlex
W3198447523
Semantic Scholar
9baf82ec4759470d3d72f6f7c0ae3c2e56b4e41b
Cited by
13
References
80
Citations by year
2025: 3 · 2024: 2 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 4
FWCI
1.32
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • NeuroSci (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Free Will and Agency
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Philosophy and Theoretical Science
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Biofield Effects and Biophysics
Keywords
free will, consciousness, brain electromagnetic fields, ephaptic coupling, voluntary action, involuntary action, mind-body problem, immaterial mind

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review