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Cited by 185Food Waste Reduction and SustainabilityConsumer Packaging Perceptions and TrendsAgriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact

Packaging-Related Food Losses and Waste: An Overview of Drivers and Issues

Open access
Wohner, Bernhard, Pauer, Erik, Heinrich, Victoria, Tacker, Manfred·2019·Sustainability
DOI 10.3390/su11010264
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Abstract

Packaging is often criticized as a symbol of today’s throwaway society, as it is mostly made of plastic, which is in itself quite controversial, and is usually used only once. However, as packaging’s main function is to protect its content and 30% of all food produced worldwide is lost or wasted along the supply chain, optimized packaging may be one of the solutions to reduce this staggering amount. Developing countries struggle with losses in the supply chain before food reaches the consumer. Here, appropriate packaging may help to protect food and prolong its shelf life so that it safely reaches these households. In developed countries, food tends to be wasted rather at the household’s level due to wasteful behavior. There, packaging may be one of the drivers due to inappropriate packaging sizes and packaging that is difficult to empty. When discussing the sustainability of packaging, its protective function is often neglected and only revolves around the type and amount of material used for production. In this review, drivers, issues, and implications of packaging-related food losses and waste (FLW) are discussed, as well as the implication for the implementation in life cycle assessments (LCA).

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This review argues that packaging’s protective function is often neglected in sustainability debates and that appropriate packaging may help reduce food loss and waste (FLW), especially in developing supply chains. However, packaging-related FLW (PFLW) is poorly quantified and rarely integrated into life cycle assessments (LCA), so better data and methods are needed.

Key findings

  • Around 30% of food produced worldwide is lost or wasted; FAO estimates about 1.3 billion metric tons annually, with industrialized regions wasting more at consumption and developing regions losing more between production and retail.
  • PFLW is significant but scarcely quantified: a Swedish household survey estimated PFLW contributes 20%–25% of household food waste, and poor emptiability led to approximately 4% of total FLW in surveyed households.
  • Packaging can reduce FLW through mechanical protection, barrier properties, modified atmosphere packaging, and active/intelligent packaging, but inappropriate packaging size, difficult opening/emptying, poor stackability, and packaging failures can also cause FLW.
  • Packaging usually accounts for only 1%–12% (typically around 5%) of greenhouse gas emissions in a food-packaging LCA, so FLW prevention may often be more environmentally important than packaging material reduction; 64% of EU consumers misinterpret the “best before” date.

Methods

  • Narrative review with literature searches in ScienceDirect using keywords “food waste,” “food waste” AND “packaging,” and additional “LCA”; peer-reviewed articles were preferred, with FAO and WRAP reports also included.
  • The review identified 88 suitable references plus 17 additional references for framing, and synthesizes packaging functions, supply-chain and consumer drivers of PFLW, and approaches to integrate PFLW into LCA.
  • LCA integration approaches discussed include using 1 kg consumed food as a functional unit, calculating break-even rates, expert-opinion scenarios, and function-based ex-ante LCA.

Limitations

  • Stated: there is no reliable data on quantities of PFLW; quantification is difficult via household surveys (social desirability, forgetfulness) and waste composition analyses (limited food-category detail, missing alternative disposal routes, no cause information).
  • Stated: there is a lack of LCA studies integrating PFLW, no standardized definition of food waste, no direct relationship between longer shelf life and less FLW, and little empirical evidence on how much consumers waste due to packaging size or apportionment.
  • Evident: the review is not systematic, relies on ScienceDirect and selected reports, and several conclusions rest on correlations from industry/NGO reports (e.g., AMERIPEN, Unwrapped) rather than causal evidence.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.3390/su11010264

Cites

71 of 71 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 114 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingreasoning

    There is no reliable data on quantities of packaging-related food loss and waste (PFLW).

    “As this review shows, there is no reliable data on quantities of PFLW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Prevention of FLW may arguably be seen as one, if not the most, important strategy for packaging optimization for most types of food.

    “prevention of FLW may arguably be seen as one, if not the most, important strategy for packaging optimization for most types of food [37,38].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Premisecitation

    The more resource-intensive the food production is, the more worthwhile is a more elaborate packaging.

    “the more resource-intensive the food production is, the more worthwhile is a more elaborate packaging [35].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Interpretationreasoning

    In developing countries, appropriate packaging may help protect food and prolong its shelf life so that it safely reaches households.

    “Here, appropriate packaging may help to protect food and prolong its shelf life so that it safely reaches these households.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Premisecitation

    64% of consumers in the EU misinterpret the meaning of the best before date.

    “64% of consumers in the EU misinterpret the meaning of the best before date [41].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [41]

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15
  • May combine two claims. 29

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Findingnone given

    A systematic analysis and quantification of packaging design aspects has not yet been performed.

    “Although a systematic analysis and quantification of packaging design aspects has not yet been performed, optimal product protection and optimization of the shelf life can be considered essential.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Although food loss and waste and packaging are receiving attention in the scientific literature, packaging-related food loss and waste (PFLW) is largely unexplored.

    “Although FLW and packaging are getting attention in the scientific literature, packaging-related FLW (PFLW) is largely unexplored.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In the reviewed research articles, there is agreement on the importance of packaging-related food loss and waste (PFLW), and a number of authors already support the call for further research on this topic.

    “However, in the reviewed research articles, there is agreement on the importance of PFLW and a number of authors already support the call for further research on this topic [39,40,84,87,92,97].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The communication function of packaging includes product and packaging information and instructions on how to properly store, open, and dispose of the package.

    “FLW-related features of the communication function consist mostly of product and packaging information and instructions, as in how to properly store, open, and dispose of the package [18].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [18]

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning

    As long as consumers are not aware of the importance of FLW reduction by appropriate packaging, this represents a conflict of objectives and the main challenge for all stakeholders in the packaging design process.

    “as long as consumers are not aware of the importance of FLW reduction by appropriate packaging, this represents a conflict of objectives and, hence, the main challenge for all stakeholders in the packaging design process.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumers with high amounts of food waste tend to be less environmentally aware with regard to packaging solutions than 'no-wasters', but show a higher willingness to pay more for packaging that helps to keep food fresh than no-wasters.

    “consumers with high amounts of food waste tend to be less environmentally aware with regard to packaging solutions (i.e., recyclability, material perceived as eco-friendly) than 'no-wasters', but show a higher willingness to pay more for packaging that helps to keep food fresh than no-wasters.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [22]

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The facilitate handling function of packaging includes features such as unitization, apportionment, resealability, and emptying.

    “The 'facilitate handling' function includes features, such as unitization, apportionment, resealability, and emptying.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The main functions of packaging include containing, protecting, facilitating handling, and communicating information.

    “The main functions of packaging are to contain, to protect, to facilitate handling, and to communicate information (Figure 1) [18,19].”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    When discussing the sustainability of packaging, its protective function is often neglected and discussion only revolves around the type and amount of material used for production.

    “When discussing the sustainability of packaging, its protective function is often neglected and only revolves around the type and amount of material used for production.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    There has been relatively little research on whether more, less, or different types of packaging cause FLW.

    “There has been relatively little research on whether more, less, or different types of packaging cause FLW in relation to the available literature on FLW.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumers often confuse best before and use by dates, and state that they need more information about the shelf life of food once a package has been opened.

    “While consumers often confuse best before and use by dates, they state that they need more information about the shelf life of food once a package has been opened [42].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Packaging can contain instructions on how to prolong the shelf life of the packaged food by encouraging consumers to freeze leftovers.

    “packaging can contain instructions on how to prolong the shelf life of the packaged food by encouraging consumers to freeze leftovers [20].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The protective function of packaging includes FLW-related features such as mechanical protection, barrier properties, and thermal and sealing properties.

    “The protective function includes FLW-related features, such as mechanical protection, barrier (e.g., against oxygen or water vapor), and thermal and sealing properties.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [18]

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    Premisecitation

    At the processing stage, the main causes of FLW are overproduction, misshaped food, and packaging damage.

    “At the processing stage, the main causes of FLW are overproduction, misshaped food, and packaging damage [63,64].”
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    Premisecitation

    The retail sector is responsible for around 5% of FLW in Europe.

    “a sector which is responsible for around 5% of FLW in Europe [67].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [67]

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Further important factors that influenced the emptying behavior could be attributed to the presence of a fold at the bottom of the package and corrugations in its internal wall, as well as the shape of the package itself.

    “Further important factors that influenced the emptying behavior could be attributed to the presence of a fold at the bottom of the package and corrugations in its internal wall, as well as the shape of the package itself [54].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Buying large packages contributes significantly to excessive purchasing, which is true in particular for low-income households, where this leads to over-preparing and thus to the generation of FLW.

    “Buying large packages contributes significantly to excessive purchasing, which is true in particular for low-income households, where this leads to over-preparing and thus to the generation of FLW [57].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    While in distribution, food losses may occur due to damage of the packaging, the exceedance of expiration dates, or poor stock management.

    “While in distribution, food losses may occur due to damage of the packaging, the exceedance of expiration dates, or poor stock management [65].”
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    Interpretationcitation

    Currently, both packaging and future developments in material technology have a huge potential to minimize FLW and to contribute to food safety and security.

    “Currently, both packaging and future developments in material technology have a huge potential to minimize FLW [15,17] and to contribute to food safety and security [45].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Active packaging contains deliberately incorporated components intended to release or absorb substances into or from the packaged food or from the environment surrounding the food, and has the purpose to extend the shelf life of food.

    “Active packaging contains 'deliberately incorporated components intended to release or absorb substances into or from the packaged food or from the environment surrounding the food' [79] and has, therefore, the purpose to extend the shelf life of food [80,81].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Food-contaminated packaging reduces the possibility of a potential mechanical recycling of the packaging, further contributing to a higher environmental impact.

    “food-contaminated packaging reduces the possibility of a potential mechanical recycling of the packaging, further contributing to a higher environmental impact [71].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Modified atmosphere packages contain a modified gas composition, mainly nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or oxygen, which aims to reduce microbial growth and chemical deterioration of the packaged food and therefore increases its shelf life.

    “Such packages contain a modified gas composition, mainly nitrogen, carbon dioxide, or oxygen, which aims to reduce microbial growth and chemical deterioration of the packaged food and therefore increases its shelf life [77].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In an automatic filling process, losses can occur when packaging and filling machines are not well matched or if there is a malfunction of the machinery.

    “In an automatic filling process, losses can occur when packaging and filling machines are not well matched or if there is a malfunction of the machinery, e.g., resulting in bottle overfilling [46].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Consumers in Germany and Italy point out that the packaging sizes of many types of fresh produce, as well as dairy products, baking ingredients, meat products, and pasta, are too big, while complaining about the higher price of smaller packages in comparison to larger ones.

    “consumers in Germany and Italy point out that the packaging sizes of many types of fresh produce, as well as dairy products, baking ingredients, meat products, and pasta, are too big, while complaining about the higher price of smaller packages in comparison to larger ones [56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Single households generate the most food waste per capita, and people in four-person households waste less than half than a person in a single household.

    “Single households generate the most food waste per capita and by comparison, people in four-person households waste less than half than a person in a single household [56].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In a comparative assessment of two different product and transport packages for eggs, an average breakage rate of 1.1% was observed, with results of four different packaging scenarios varying between 0.56% and 2.38%.

    “In a comparative assessment of two different product and transport packages (corrugated cardboard and plastic crates) for eggs, an average breakage rate of 1.1% was observed while the results of the four different packaging scenarios varied between 0.56% and 2.38%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Packaging damage in retail is rather rare and may just mean that the imprinted barcodes are unreadable.

    “Packaging damage is rather rare and may just mean that the imprinted barcodes are unreadable [45].”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    As material technology advances, more and more polymer-based multilayer packaging is used, which extends the shelf life of food while reducing packaging weight.

    “As material technology is always making advances, more and more polymer-based multilayer packaging is used, which extends the shelf life of food while reducing packaging weight [76].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Waste composition analyses have limitations on information about specific waste quantities by food category and do not include alternative disposal routes of households, such as separate bio-waste collection, home composting, or use as pet food.

    “Waste composition analyses have limitations on information about specific waste quantities by food category and do not include alternative disposal routes of households, such as a separate bio-waste collection, home composting, or the use as pet food [103], but above all, there is no generation of information about the causes of the FLW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Packaging can contain instructions on how best to store food, encourage people to freeze leftovers, and how to serve food to avoid residues in the package.

    “Furthermore, packaging can contain instructions about how best to store the food and to encourage people to freeze leftovers [20], as well as how to serve food to avoid residues in the package [54].”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    For packaging already on the market, integrating the emptying behavior of a package into its life cycle assessment is feasible and advisable.

    “If a packaging is already on the market, research suggests that the integration of the emptying behavior of a package in its LCA is feasible as well as advisable [54].”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Intelligent packaging is comprised of materials and articles that monitor the condition of packaged food or the environment surrounding the food.

    “Intelligent packaging is comprised of 'materials and articles that monitor the condition of packaged food or the environment surrounding the food' [79]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Packaging saves food by mechanical protection or prolongs shelf life through materials with good barrier properties, modified atmosphere packaging, and, in the future, intelligent or active packaging that dynamically displays microbiological status.

    “Packaging saves food by mechanical protection or prolong its shelf life by a material with good barrier properties [76], through the use of modified atmosphere packaging [77] and, in the future, by intelligent or active packaging through the dynamic display of its microbiological status [82].”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
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    Premisecitation

    Medium and larger supermarkets can benefit from faster turnovers, whereas smaller supermarkets benefit from placing fewer orders and having products with a longer shelf life.

    “Medium and larger supermarkets can benefit from faster turnovers, while for smaller supermarkets, it is better to place fewer orders and have products with a longer shelf life [96].”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationnone given

    In industrialized countries, the contribution of packaging to food loss and waste is less clear-cut.

    “In industrialized countries, the contribution of packaging to FLW is less clear-cut.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Non-adequate packaging (e.g., too large packaging sizes, inappropriate material, contaminated packaging, technical failures in the packaging process) and packaging that is too difficult to open or empty can cause food loss or waste.

    “Examples include non-adequate packaging (too large packaging sizes, inappropriate material, contaminated packaging, technical failures in the packaging process) [43][44][45]48,50,51,[55][56][57][58][59][60] or packaging that is too difficult to open [52,53] or to empty [39,54] so that its contents spill or are left in the package.”
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    Premisecitation

    The impact of the best before date depends not only on the product category but also on the size of the retailer.

    “The best before date can have a significant impact on the purchase decision [95] and depends not only on the product category, but also on the size of the retailer.”
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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The causes of food loss and waste are complex and are often the result of multiple interacting activities.

    “These causes are rather complex and are often the result of multiple interacting activities [104] so it is challenging to identify FLW as (at least partially) packaging-related, even when interviewing consumers directly about whether their FLW is connected in any way with packaging [39].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Packaging plays an essential part in food protection and can therefore reduce food loss and waste.

    “Packaging plays an essential part in food protection and thus can reduce FLW.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
39 of 39

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Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • RecyClass is assigned to the wrong reference

    Minor

    The text cites reference [72] as Plastics Recyclers Europe's RecyClass tool, but reference [72] is a different article. The RecyClass entry is numbered [73] in the reference list.

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Related

Authors
Wohner, B., Pauer, E., Heinrich, V., & Tacker, M.
Affiliations
Hochschule Campus Wien (AT)
Corresponding author
Wohner, Bernhard
ORCID
Venue
Sustainability
Publisher
MDPI AG
Published
2019-01-07
Volume
11
Issue
1
Pages
264
ISSN
2071-1050 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.3390/su11010264
OpenAlex
W2908209806
Cited by
185
References
73
Citations by year
2026: 22 · 2025: 19 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 32 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 5
FWCI
15.83
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Sustainability (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Food Science › Food Waste Reduction and Sustainability
  • Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Marketing › Consumer Packaging Perceptions and Trends
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Ecology › Agriculture Sustainability and Environmental Impact
Keywords
food loss and waste, packaging, food packaging, plastic packaging, food shelf life, household food waste, packaging size, sustainable packaging, life cycle assessment, food protection

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