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Cited by 50Heavy Metal Exposure and ToxicityContact Dermatitis and AllergiesPharmaceutical Quality and Counterfeiting

The Evaluation of Total Mercury and Arsenic in Skin Bleaching Creams Commonly used in Trinidad and Tobago and their Potential Risk to the People of the Caribbean

Open access
Mohammed, Terry, Mohammed, Elisabeth, Bascombe, Shermel·2017·Journal of Public Health Research
DOI 10.4081/jphr.2017.1097PMC PMC5736993
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Abstract

Background: Skin lightening is very popular among women and some men of the Caribbean, and its popularity appears to be growing. The lightening of skin colour is done to produce a lighter complexion which is believed to increase attractiveness, social standing and improves one's potential of being successful. Design and Methods: Fifteen (15) common skin lightening creams found in pharmacies and cosmetic retailers throughout Trinidad and Tobago were evaluated for Mercury by Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (CVAAS) and Arsenic by Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (HGAAS). The results obtained were compared to global standards and previous research. Results: Fourteen (14) of the fifteen samples analysed contained Mercury in the range of 0.473 μg/g to 0.766 μg/g. One sample had a Mercury content of 14,507.74±490.75 μg/g which was over 14,000 times higher than the USFDA limit for mercury in cosmetics of 1 μg/g. All samples contained Arsenic in the range 1.016 μg/g to 6.612 μg/g, which exceeds the EU limit for cosmetics of 0 μg/g. Conclusions: All the samples analysed contained significant amounts of Mercury and Arsenic and none of them can be considered safe for prolonged human use. The samples that contained Mercury levels which were lower than the USFDA limit contained Arsenic levels which exceeded the EU standard of 0 μg/g in cosmetics. The popularity of these skin lightening creams in the Caribbean region places the population at elevated risk of chronic Mercury and Arsenic poisoning and possibly acute Mercury Poisoning.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Fifteen skin-lightening creams commonly sold in Trinidad and Tobago were analyzed for total mercury and arsenic; all contained both metals, and none could be considered safe for prolonged human use. One cream contained mercury at 14,507.74±490.75 µg/g, over 14,000 times the USFDA cosmetic limit of 1 µg/g, while all samples contained arsenic at 1.016–6.612 µg/g, exceeding the EU limit of 0 µg/g.

Key findings

  • Fourteen of fifteen samples contained mercury at 0.473–0.766 µg/g, below the USFDA limit of <1 µg/g but above the EU limit of 0 µg/g; one sample, Deluxe Silken, contained 14,507.74±490.75 µg/g, or 1.8% ammoniated mercury, versus its label claim of 3% ammoniated mercury.
  • All fifteen samples contained arsenic, ranging from 1.016 µg/g (Fair & White) to 6.612 µg/g (Symba Crème Skin Lite N Smooth), exceeding the EU limit of 0 µg/g and exceeding previous reported cosmetic arsenic levels by up to 30 times.
  • In fourteen of fifteen samples, arsenic levels exceeded mercury levels; no clear pattern by place of manufacture and no association between arsenic and mercury content were observed.
  • The authors conclude that none of the samples can be considered safe for prolonged use, and that popular use of these creams places users and close contacts at risk of chronic mercury and arsenic poisoning and possibly acute mercury poisoning.

Methods

  • Fifteen commonly used skin-lightening creams were purchased in October 2016 from pharmacies and cosmetic outlets throughout Trinidad; nine were manufactured in the EU, four in India, one in the UK, and one in Jamaica, with manufacture dates from June 2014 to August 2016.
  • Approximately 0.5 g of each sample was digested in triplicate with nitric/perchloric acid at 130°C for 8 hours; total mercury was analyzed by Cold Vapor Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (CVAAS) and total arsenic by Hydride Generation Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (HGAAS) after reduction with KI.
  • Method validation used DORM-4 certified reference material and spiked Papaya White samples; recoveries ranged from 97.2% to 103.8% with standard deviations <5%, and detection limits were 0.17 µg/kg for mercury and 0.21 µg/kg for arsenic.

Limitations

  • The paper states that no differentiation between organic and inorganic metals was addressed, and that further research is required to assess heavy metals in other cosmetic products, including indigenous products.
  • Evident from the text: the sample was limited to fifteen creams purchased in Trinidad, with no clinical health outcomes, biomarkers, or exposure data from users or households.
  • Evident from the text: arsenic has no USFDA or WHO acceptable cosmetic limit, so comparisons rely on the EU ban/0 µg/g standard; also, cosmetics in the region are not required by local law to list all ingredients, and arsenic was not listed on any product label.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.4081/jphr.2017.1097

Cites

28 of 28 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

15 of 46 cited sources checked · 8 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Interpretationcitation

    The threat of mercury poisoning is real in the Caribbean.

    “The Caribbean population was previously believed to be under threat of mercury poisoning due to its higher than average fish consumption, however recent research including work by Drescher et al,5 Mckelvey et al.14 and this current study indicates that the threat of Mercury poisoning is indeed real in the Caribbean, but may be more due to its cultural use of skin lightening creams than fish cons”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Drescher et al,5

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Mckelvey et al.14 McKelvey W Jeffery N Clark N Population-based inorganic mercury biomonitoring and the identification of skin care products as a source of exposure in New York City. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 203. 20923743 PMC3040607 source

      The Discussion (page not provided) reports inorganic mercury exposure from skin-lightening creams among Dominicans and possibly Caribbean groups in New York City. It does not establish mercury poisoning in the Caribbean itself, or show that creams pose a greater threat there than fish consumption. (LLM, conf=0.88)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    Long-term arsenic exposure is associated with a range of chronic health effects including hyperpigmentation, palmar and solar keratosis, diarrhoea and vomiting, skin changes and neuropathy, ischemic heart disease, confusion and memory loss, respiratory disease and a higher risk of diabetes.

    “Other symptoms may include hyperpigmentation, palmar and solar keratosis, diarrhoea and vomiting, skin changes and neuropathy,36 ischemic heart disease, 38 confusion and memory loss,23 respiratory disease and a higher risk of diabetes.39,40”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [36] Ratnaike RN Acute and chronic arsenic toxicity. Postgrad Med J 2003; 79: 391- 6. 12897217 PMC1742758 source
    • cites [38] Hsueh YM Wu WL Huang YL Low serum carotene level and increased risk of ischemic heart disease related to long-term arsenic exposure. Atherosclerosis 1998; 141: 249- 57. 9862173 source
    • cites [23] Naujokas MF Anderson B Ahsan H The broad scope of health effects from chronic arsenic exposure: update on a worldwide public health problem. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 295. 23458756 PMC3621177 source
  • Interpretationcitation

    Use of products like Deluxe Silken can lead to symptoms of mercury poisoning including Nephrotic Syndrome.

    “Deluxe Silken is approximately 14,000 times the recommended limit for Mercury and use of products of this kind can lead to symptoms of Mercury poisoning including Nephrotic Syndrome as have been documented in the US,14,29 Barbados5 and Indonesia.30”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [14] McKelvey W Jeffery N Clark N Population-based inorganic mercury biomonitoring and the identification of skin care products as a source of exposure in New York City. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 203. 20923743 PMC3040607 source

      The paper’s Discussion reports US poisonings associated with mercury-containing skin-lightening creams, and its introductory toxicity passage says topical mercury can damage the kidneys (page not supplied). It does not identify Deluxe Silken or mention nephrotic syndrome, so it supports the general risk but not that specific condition or product. (LLM, conf=0.86)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [29] Copan L Fowles J Barreau T McGee N. Mercury toxicity and contamination of households from the use of skin creams adulterated with mercurous chloride (Calomel). Int J Environ Res Public Health 2015; 12: 10943- 54. 26364641 PMC4586653 source

      The Introduction and Results §3.1 document mercury poisoning from adulterated skin creams in US cases. The Discussion (§4) says the kidney is a sensitive target of mercury toxicity, but reports minimal clinical signs of kidney damage in its cases; it does not document nephrotic syndrome. No page numbers are available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [5] Drescher O Dewailly E Krimholtz M Rutchik J. Fishy makeup on the hook for mercury exposure: a case series. W Indian Med J 2013; 62: 770- 2. 25014866 source
    • cites [30] Soo YO-Y Chow K-M Lam CW-K A whitened face woman with nephrotic syndrome. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 41: 250- 3. 12500245 source
  • Premisecitation

    Alquadami et al. in 2013 found arsenic levels in 34 skin whitening creams ranging from 0.34 to 14.76 μg/g.

    “Alquadami et al. in 2013,34 who found Arsenic levels in thirty-four (34) skin whitening creams ranging from a low of 0.34 μg/g to a high of 14.76 μg/g.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [34] ALqadami AA Abdalla MA ALOthman ZA Omer K. Application of solid phase extraction on multiwalled carbon nanotubes of some heavy metal ions to analysis of skin whitening cosmetics using ICP-AES. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2013; 10: 361- 74. 23343988 PMC3564147 source

      Methods §2.3 reports 34 skin-whitening cosmetics, and Results §3.8 reports a minimum arsenic concentration of 0.34 µg/g. But §3.8 and Table 8 give the maximum as 15.36 µg/g (sample 19); the cited 14.76 µg/g is the concentration in sample 25, not the maximum. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.93)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
  • Premisecitation

    When in the body, arsenic can accumulate in hair, skin and nails and result in chronic health effects.

    “When in the body Arsenic can accumulate in hair, skin and nails and result in chronic health effects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Ratnaike RN Acute and chronic arsenic toxicity. Postgrad Med J 2003; 79: 391- 6. 12897217 PMC1742758 source
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 19
  • May combine two claims. 16

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The presence of arsenic in these skin lightening lotions may be due to the existence of the substances in the raw material used in manufacturing, the use of lower quality materials particularly fillers and pigments, or unintentional migration of the metal from wear and corrosion of metallic devices and machinery used in the manufacturing process.

    “The presence of Arsenic in these skin lightening lotions, may be due to the existence of the substances in the raw material used in the manufacturing of the products as well the use of lower quality materials in its manufacture particularly fillers and pigments.23 Arsenic contamination may also be as a result of unintentional migration of the metal from wear and corrosion of metallic devices and”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [23] Naujokas MF Anderson B Ahsan H The broad scope of health effects from chronic arsenic exposure: update on a worldwide public health problem. Environ Health Perspect 2013; 121: 295. 23458756 PMC3621177 source

      The Abstract discusses arsenic contamination from natural deposits and industrial activities, but not contamination of skin-lightening lotions. Searches for lotions, raw materials, fillers, pigments, and corrosion of manufacturing equipment found no passage addressing the proposed mechanisms. The Health Outcomes section discusses skin effects of arsenic exposure, not how arsenic enters lotions. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites [22] CDC. CDC-NBP-Factsheet - Arsenic: CDC; 2016 Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/biomonitoring/Arsenic_ FactSheet.html.

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arsenic can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion and via the skin.

    “The levels of Arsenic observed can enter the body via inhalation, ingestion and via the skin.36”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [36] Ratnaike RN Acute and chronic arsenic toxicity. Postgrad Med J 2003; 79: 391- 6. 12897217 PMC1742758 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Recent publications have reported that mercury is still being used in many skin lightening products found in Mexico, Africa, The United States and Asia.

    “Recent publications have reported that mercury is still being used in many skin lightening products found in Mexico,12 Africa,13 The United States14 and Asia.15”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim3 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [12] Peregrino CP Moreno MV Miranda SV Mercury levels in locally manufactured Mexican skin-lightening creams. Int J Environment Res Public Health 2011; 8: 2516- 23. PMC3138038 21776243 source
    • cites [13] Agorku ES Kwaansa-Ansah EE Voegborlo RB Mercury and hydroquinone content of skin toning creams and cosmetic soaps, and the potential risks to the health of Ghanaian women. Springerplus 2016; 5: 319. 27065161 PMC4788657 source
    • cites [14] McKelvey W Jeffery N Clark N Population-based inorganic mercury biomonitoring and the identification of skin care products as a source of exposure in New York City. Environ Health Perspect 2011; 119: 203. 20923743 PMC3040607 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Only the European Union is known to have strict regulations against arsenic, banning it from use in cosmetics.

    “Although past studies have shown that Arsenic is present in a range of cosmetic products such as eye shadows, lotions and lipsticks, only the European Union is known to have strict regulations against the metal, banning it from use in cosmetics.35”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [35] Ullah H Noreen S Rehman A Comparative study of heavy metals content in cosmetic products of different countries marketed in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Arab J Chem 2017; 10: 10- 8. source

      In §1.1.2 (page unavailable), the paper says an EU directive banned certain heavy metals in cosmetics, but its list does not include arsenic. Its discussion of regulatory limits (page unavailable) also gives a Canadian limit for arsenic in cosmetics. The paper therefore does not support the claimed EU ban on arsenic or the claim that only the EU regulates it. (LLM, conf=0.85)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Researchers have found that many skin whitening products do contain some level of mercury although none were declared in the ingredient list or labelling.

    “researchers have found that many skin whitening products do contain some level of mercury although none were declared in the ingredient list or labelling.26”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [26] Dlova NC Hendricks NE Martincgh BS Skinô€€€lightening creams used in Durban, South Africa. Int J Dermatol 2012; 51: 51- 3. 23210963 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Nine of the fifteen samples were manufactured in the EU, four in India, one in the UK, and one in Jamaica.

    “Nine of the samples collected were manufactured in the EU, India manufactured four of the samples, the UK one and Jamaica one.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingnone given

    Deluxe Silken was manufactured in Jamaica.

    “The sample of Deluxe Silken manufactured in Jamaica greatly exceeded the <1 μg/g value.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Ten of the fifteen samples originated from the EU.

    “Only the EU has an outright ban on Arsenic and its compounds in cosmetics, and it was interesting to note that ten of the fifteen samples originated from the EU.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Detection limits were 0.17 μg/kg for mercury and 0.21 μg/kg for arsenic.

    “Detection limits were determined to be 0.17 μg/kg for Mercury and 0.21 μg/kg for Arsenic.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Spiked Papaya White samples supported method validation; recoveries ranged from 97.2% to 103.8% with standard deviations of <5%.

    “The spiked Papaya White samples also supported the method validation.”
    • Also stated in: § Method validation · plain
      “In all cases, recoveries ranged from a low of 97.2% to a high of 103.8% with standard deviations of <5%.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Sample selection was done to ensure the widest diversity of samples and to capture the most popularly purchased samples.

    “Sample selection was done to ensure the widest diversity of samples and to capture the most popularly purchased samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The samples selected are representative of commonly used skin lightening creams in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The analytical method used in this study is both accurate and precise and is fit for purpose.

    “The analytical method used in this study is both accurate and precise and is fit for purpose.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The popularity of these skin lightening creams in the Caribbean region places the population at elevated risk of chronic mercury and arsenic poisoning and possibly acute mercury poisoning.

    “The popularity of these skin lightening creams in the Caribbean region places the population at elevated risk of chronic Mercury and Arsenic poisoning and possibly acute Mercury Poisoning.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lightly coloured individuals have a statistically higher chance of being hired than darker coloured persons.

    “This is further supported by studies in hiring practices where lightly coloured individuals have a statistically higher chance of being hired than darker coloured persons.8”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [8] Wade TJ Romano MJ Blue L. The effect of African American skin color on hiring preferences. J Appl Soc Psychol 2004; 34: 2550- 8. source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Chronic usage of skin lightening creams could lead to mercury and arsenic poisoning as well as physical, emotional and social complications.

    “Chronic usage could lead to mercury and arsenic poisoning as well as physical, emotional and social complications resulting from such.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Arsenic is found in pigments used in cosmetics and is regulated by the USFDA.

    “Currently, Arsenic is found in pigments used in cosmetics and is regulated by the USFDA.20”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [20] Hepp NM Mindak WR Gasper JW Survey of cosmetics for arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobalt, lead, mercury, and nickel content. J Cosmet Sci 2014; 65: 125- 45. 25043485

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Skin bleaching is more prevalent among women with higher academic achievement.

    “Research have also found that skin bleaching is more prevalent among women with higher academic achievement,7”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [7] Peltzer K Pengpid S James C. The globalization of whitening: prevalence of skin lighteners (or bleachers) use and its social correlates among university students in 26 countries. Int J Dermatol 2016; 55: 165- 72. 26472662 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In these populations, a lighter complexion is deemed more beautiful, signifies a higher social status and enhanced economic mobility.

    “In these populations, and among many others, a lighter complexion is deemed more beautiful, signifies a higher social status and enhanced economic mobility.4”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [4] Alghamdi K The use of topical bleaching agents among women: a crossô€€€sectional study of knowledge, attitude and practices. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2010; 24: 1214- 9. 20236376 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Lifelong exposure to arsenic levels as low as 10 μg/L in drinking water has been shown to elevate an individual's risk of cancer.

    “Lifelong exposure to arsenic levels as low as 10 μg/L in drinking have been shown to elevate an individual’s risk of cancer.37”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [37] Smith AH Lopipero PA Bates MN Steinmaus CM Arsenic epidemiology and drinking water standards. Science 2002; 296: 2145- 6. 12077388 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Women of East Indian descent prefer men of a lighter complexion.

    “In the case of men of East Indian decent, a recent study found that women of East Indian descent prefer men of a lighter complexion.10”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [10] Utley TJ Darity W. India’s color complex: one day’s worth of matrimonials. Rev Black Polit Econ 2016; 43: 129. source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Studies show that skin bleaching is on the rise and is more prevalent among females.

    “Studies show that skin bleaching is on the rise and is more prevalent among females.6”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [6] Hunter ML Buying racial capital: skin-bleaching and cosmetic surgery in a globalized world. J Pan Afr Stud 2011; 4: 142- 64.

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    The use of skin bleaching creams in the Caribbean is not restricted to women only, but also to men.

    “The use of skin bleaching creams in the Caribbean is not restricted to women only, but also to men who are seeking a lighter skin complexion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The lack of regulation of cosmetics in the region could lead to severe health defects within the population and present burdens on both the health system and social support services of the region.

    “Such lack of regulation could lead to severe health defects within the population and present burdens on both the health system and social support services of the region.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cosmetics are not regulated in the region and manufacturers are not required by law to display the components of their products on the labels.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The popularity of skin lightening has always been high, and appears to be increasing with both men and women.

    “The popularity of skin lightening has always been high, and appears to be increasing with both men and women.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Arsenic is present in a range of cosmetic products such as eye shadows, lotions and lipsticks.

    “Arsenic is present in a range of cosmetic products such as eye shadows, lotions and lipsticks, and only the European Union is known to have strict regulations against the metal, banning it from use in cosmetics.21”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [21] REGULATION (EC) No 1223/2009 of The European Parliament and of the Council Of 30 November 2009 on cosmetic products, 1223 (2009).

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    The act of skin bleaching is very prominent in the Caribbean region and the diaspora of the Caribbean regions, as it is engrained in the culture.

    “The act of skin bleaching is very prominent in the Caribbean region and the diaspora of the Caribbean regions, as it is engrained in the culture.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
26 of 26

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cosmetics are not regulated in the region and manufacturers are not required by law to display the components of their products on the labels.

    “Cosmetics are not regulated in the region and manufacturers are not required by law to display the components of their products on the labels.”
    “Cosmetics are not required by local laws to list all their ingredients so many preparations do not list their content of mercury or arsenic in the ingredient listing or package label, and researchers have found that many skin whitening products do contain some level of mercury although none were declared in the ingredient list or labelling.26”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many of the countries of the Caribbean region are either signatories to the Minamata Convention or are in the process of signing.

    “Many of the countries of the Caribbean region are either signatories to the Minamata Convention or, are in the process of signing.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The provisions of the Minamata Convention require that states regulate mercury containing products including cosmetics.

    “The provisions of the convention require that states regulate mercury containing products including cosmetics.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Neither the USFDA nor the WHO have defined acceptable levels for Arsenic in cosmetics.

    “Neither the USFDA nor the WHO have defined acceptable levels for Arsenic in cosmetics.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The samples selected are representative of commonly used skin lightening creams in Trinidad and Tobago and the Caribbean.

    “Sample selection was done to ensure the widest diversity of samples and to capture the most popularly purchased samples.”
5 of 5

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Two different spectrophotometer models are specified

    Minor

    The equipment section says analysis used a Varian AA 800, while the mercury determination section says it used a Varian SpectrAA300.

  • Spiking concentrations are described differently

    Minor

    The first description assigns 50 Î1⁄4g/kg to mercury and 100 Î1⁄4g/kg to arsenic, respectively. The later description says both metals were spiked at both concentrations.

2 of 2

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 7

  1. Arbab A, 2010, Khartoum Pharm J, 13, 5
  2. Drescher O, 2013, W Indian Med J, 62, 770
  3. Hunter ML, 2011, J Pan Afr Stud, 4, 142
  4. Shankar PR, 2016, J Pak Assoc Dermatol, 17, 100
  5. CDC, 2012, MMWR Morbid Mortal Wkly Rep, 61, 33
  6. Hepp NM, 2014, J Cosmet Sci, 65, 125
  7. Li EP, 2008, ACR North American Advances

Cited by

Still being checked.

Related

Authors
Mohammed, T., Mohammed, E., & Bascombe, S.
Affiliations
University of the West Indies (TT)
Corresponding author
Mohammed, Terry
ORCID
Mohammed, Terry
Venue
Journal of Public Health Research
Publisher
SAGE Publications
Published
2017-12-13
Volume
6
Issue
3
Pages
1097-1097
ISSN
2279-9036 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.4081/jphr.2017.1097
PMC
PMC5736993
OpenAlex
W2763544274
Semantic Scholar
5a942bff3e711e2e037d2afeaf3fc5f7fac91d64
Cited by
50
References
28
Citations by year
2026: 2 · 2025: 4 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 5 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 2
FWCI
2.77
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Public Health Research (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • PubMed Central (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
  • Journal of Public Health Research (submittedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Heavy Metal Exposure and Toxicity
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Dermatology › Contact Dermatitis and Allergies
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Pharmaceutical Quality and Counterfeiting
Keywords
skin bleaching creams, mercury, arsenic, cosmetic safety, heavy metal contamination, mercury toxicity, arsenic toxicity, Trinidad and Tobago, Caribbean

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Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-09.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-09.

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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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