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A Critical Assessment of Charismatic—Transformational Leadership Research: Back to the Drawing Board?
Abstract
There is a widely shared consensus that charismatic–transformational leadership is a particularly effective form of leadership. In a critical assessment of the state-of-the-science in this area of research, we question the validity of that conclusion. We identify four problems with theory and research in charismatic–transformational leadership. First, a clear conceptual definition of charismatic–transformational leadership is lacking. Current theories advance multi-dimensional conceptualizations of charismatic–transformational leadership without specifying how these different dimensions combine to form charismatic–transformational leadership, or how dimensions are selected for inclusion or exclusion. Second, theories fail to sufficiently specify the causal model capturing how each dimension has a distinct influence on mediating processes and outcomes and how this is contingent on moderating influences. Third, conceptualization and operationalization confounds charismatic–transformational leadership with its effects. Fourth, the most frequently used measurement tools are invalid in that they fail to reproduce the dimensional structure specified by theory and fail to achieve empirical distinctiveness from other aspects of leadership. Given that these problems are fundamental and inherent in the approaches analyzed, it is recommended that current approaches be abandoned, and that the field forego the label of charismatic–transformational leadership in favor of the study of more…
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“Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) identified numerous problems with transformational leadership theory and measurement.”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“Both critiques point out that the conceptualisation and operationalisation of these prominent leadership styles confound the variable with its effects.”
From A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship (2021) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin 2013
In the citing paper
“Sustained efforts to the contrary confound characteristics with behaviors and behaviors with their effects, creating dangerous threats to validity that undermine the utility of leadership research (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“An additional advantage to focusing on component-level items is that narrower item breadth further increases construct validity because it reduces the risk of measuring a phenomenon by its antecedents or outcomes, a practice that creates an additional threat to validity that is germane to the moral leadership and the broader leadership literature alike (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“questions of similar theory, mechanisms, measurements, and outcomes have been asked of virtually all branches of leadership research for decades”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“Whereas the leadership literature is often criticized for its overreliance on empiricism and absence of strong theory (e.g., van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013), the philosophy and ethics literatures are conversely in need of rigorous empiricism to test their many theories (Widdershoven & van der Scheer, 2008).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“Criticism of survey-based leadership measures has been raised with moral approaches to leadership, including transformational, ethical, authentic, and servant leadership receiving the most attention (Fischer & Sitkin, 2023; Fischer et al., in press; van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“They contended that these problems were so serious ' that leadership research and practice are better off abandoning the construct of charismatictransformational leadership ' (p. 2).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
In the citing paper
“casting such strong recommendations, for example, that transformational leadership research be abandoned (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013) or that positive leadership suffers from a ' fatal ' fl aw (Fischer et al., in press) as extreme and inappropriate.”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
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Walumbwa, F. O., LAWLER, J. J., Avolio, B. J., Wang, P., & Shi, K. (2005) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190501100301 · Cited by 186
Leadership, Individual Differences, and Work‐related Attitudes: A Cross‐Culture Investigation
Walumbwa, F. O., LAWLER, J. J., & Avolio, B. J. (2007) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00241.x · Cited by 183
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The role of regulatory fit in visionary leadership
Stam, D. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Wisse, B. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.624 · Cited by 157
Conchie, S. M., & Donald, I. (2009) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014247 · Cited by 157
Leadership Theory and Research
Harrison, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68672-1 · Cited by 155
Jung, D.-I., Yammarino, F. J., & Lee, J. K. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.04.011 · Cited by 154
Charismatic leadership and task feedback
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Group Leaders as Gatekeepers: Testing Safety Climate Variations across Levels of Analysis
Zohar, D. M., & Luria, G. (2010) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2010.00421.x · Cited by 151
Identification of Transformational Leadership Qualities: An Examination of Potential Biases
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Are We On the Same Page? Effects of Self-Awareness of Empowering and Transformational Leadership
Tekleab, A. G., Sims, H. P., Yun, S., Tesluk, P. E., & Cox, J. F. (2007) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1071791907311069 · Cited by 146
Employee positive moods as a mediator linking transformational leadership and employee work outcomes
Tsai, W., Chen, H.-W., & Cheng, J. (2009) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585190802528714 · Cited by 142
Charismatic leadership, environmental dynamism, and performance
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Yang, J., Zhang, Z., & Tsui, A. S. (2009) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00902.x · Cited by 139
Transformational leadership and outcomes: role of relationship duration
Krishnan, V. R. (2005) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730510617654 · Cited by 138
Climate strength – How leaders form consensus
Luria, G. (2008) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.12.004 · Cited by 137
Do you feel what I feel? Mood contagion and leadership outcomes
Johnson, S. K. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.06.012 · Cited by 137
Leadership style and regulatory mode: Value from fit?
Benjamin, L., & Flynn, F. J. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.01.008 · Cited by 132
Morand, D. A. (2000) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1379(200005)21:3 · Cited by 132
Transformational Leadership, Cohesion Perceptions, and Employee Cynicism About Organizational Change
Wu, C., Neubert, M. J., & Yi, X. (2007) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/0021886307302097 · Cited by 126
Vecchio, R. P., Justin, J. E., & Pearce, C. L. (2007) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x202482 · Cited by 125
Rowold, J., & Rohmann, A. (2009) · Nonprofit Management and Leadership · doi:10.1002/nml.240 · Cited by 120
Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., Zhou, X., & DeChurch, L. A. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.008 · Cited by 119
Age-Based Faultlines and Perceived Productive Energy: The Moderation of Transformational Leadership
Kunze, F., & Bruch, H. (2010) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496410366307 · Cited by 117
Kearney, E. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x256717 · Cited by 116
Groves, K. S. (2005) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206304271765 · Cited by 116
Impact of transformational leadership on followers’ influence strategies
Krishnan, V. R. (2004) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730410512778 · Cited by 116
Performance implications of sales strategy: The moderating effects of leadership and environment
Panagopoulos, N. G., & Avlonitis, G. J. (2009) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.11.001 · Cited by 112
Relationships Between Leadership and Followers’ Quitting Intentions and Job Search Behaviors
Hughes, L. W., Avey, J. B., & Nixon, D. R. (2010) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051809358698 · Cited by 111
Transforming with levity: humor, leadership, and follower attitudes
Hughes, L. W., & Avey, J. B. (2009) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730910981926 · Cited by 106
Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: OCB-Specific Meanings as Mediators
Jiao, C., Richards, D. A., & Zhang, K. (2010) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-010-9168-3 · Cited by 105
Ayoko, O. B., & Callan, V. J. (2009) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2009.07.001 · Cited by 104
Cole, M. S., Bruch, H., & Shamir, B. (2009) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726709346377 · Cited by 92
Wang, P., & Zhu, W. (2010) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051810368549 · Cited by 89
Chief executive leadership style, consensus decision making, and top management team effectiveness
Flood, P. C., Hannan, E., Smith, K. G., Turner, T. R., West, M. A., & Dawson, J. (2000) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943200417984 · Cited by 88
Moss, S. A., McFarland, J., Ngu, S., & Kijowska, A. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.009 · Cited by 84
Are the Best Leaders Both Transformational and Transactional? A Pattern-oriented Analysis
O’Shea, P. G., Foti, R. J., Hauenstein, N. M. A., & Bycio, P. (2009) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/1742715009102937 · Cited by 82
Korek, S., Felfe, J., & Zaepernick-Rothe, U. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320902996336 · Cited by 77
On Charisma and Need for Leadership
de Vries, R. E. (1999) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943299398465 · Cited by 75
The Effect of Follower Regulatory Focus and Extraversion on Leadership Behavior
Moss, S. A., Ritossa, D. A., & Ngu, S. (2006) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001.27.2.93 · Cited by 73
Factor structure of the transformational leadership model in human service teams
Garman, A. N., Davis‐Lenane, D., & Corrigan, P. W. (2003) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.201 · Cited by 70
Is Charisma Hyper‐Romanticism? Empirical Evidence from New Data and a Meta‐Analysis
Schyns, B., Felfe, J., & Blank, H. (2007) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00302.x · Cited by 70
When Leaders Are Seen as Transformational: The Effects of Organizational Justice1
David De Cremer, A., van Dijke, M., & Bos, A. E. R. (2007) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00238.x · Cited by 64
Conflict, leadership, and market orientation
Mengüç, B., & Auh, S. (2008) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2007.08.001 · Cited by 61
Panagopoulos, N. G., & Dimitriadis, S. (2009) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/03090560910961498 · Cited by 60
David De Cremer, A. (2006) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320600627662 · Cited by 60
Adding fuel to fire: The impact of followers' arousal on ratings of charisma.
Pastor, J. C., Mayo, M. C., & Shamir, B. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1584 · Cited by 56
Felfe, J., & Heinitz, K. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320802708070 · Cited by 52
Testing Behling and McFillen’s Syncretical Model of Charismatic Transformational Leadership
Mccann, J. A. J., Langford, P. H., & Rawlings, R. (2006) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601104273061 · Cited by 49
Transformational Leadership and Group Climate-Empirical Results from Symphony Orchestras
Boerner, S., & von Streit, C. F. (2005) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190501200203 · Cited by 49
Transformational Leadership, Team Goal Fulfillment, and Follower Work Satisfaction
Wolfram, H., & Mohr, G. (2008) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051808326595 · Cited by 40
Pillai, R., Stites‐Doe, S., & Brodowsky, G. H. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb01998.x · Cited by 11
Leader Affective Displays and Attributions of Charisma: The Role of Arousal
Damen, F., van Knippenberg, D., & van Knippenberg, B. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00405.x · Cited by 7
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Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Gardner, W. L., Meuser, J. D., Liden, R. C., & Hu, J. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005 · Cited by 1,426
Paradox research in management science: Looking back to move forward
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Followership theory: A review and research agenda
Uhl-Bien, M., Riggio, R. E., Lowe, K. B., & Carsten, M. K. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.007 · Cited by 1,213
Leadership, creativity, and innovation: A critical review and practical recommendations
Hughes, D. J., Lee, A., Tian, A. W., Newman, A., & Legood, A. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.03.001 · Cited by 1,080
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Metadata
- Authors
- van Knippenberg, D., & Sitkin, S. B.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Venue
- Academy of Management Annals
- Publisher
- Academy of Management
- Published
- 2013-06
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 1-60
- ISSN
- 1941-6067 (ISSN-L)
- 1941-6520
- OpenAlex
- W4232157136
- Cited by
- 1,302
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 74 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 131 · 2019: 104 · 2018: 112 · 2017: 105 · 2016: 91 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 23
- FWCI
- 163.26
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Academy of Management Annals (publishedVersion)
- EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Leadership
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Leadership and Management in Organizations
- Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
- Keywords
- charismatic leadership, transformational leadership, leadership theory, conceptual definitions, causal models, measurement validity, dimensional structure, operationalization, mediating mechanisms
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