A Critical Assessment of Charismatic—Transformational Leadership Research: Back to the Drawing Board?

van Knippenberg, Daan; Sitkin, Sim B.

doi:10.5465/19416520.2013.759433

Cited by 1,302Employee Performance and LeadershipLeadership and Management in OrganizationsJob Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior

A Critical Assessment of Charismatic—Transformational Leadership Research: Back to the Drawing Board?

van Knippenberg, Daan, Sitkin, Sim B.·2013·Academy of Management Annals

DOI 10.5465/19416520.2013.759433

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Abstract

There is a widely shared consensus that charismatic–transformational leadership is a particularly effective form of leadership. In a critical assessment of the state-of-the-science in this area of research, we question the validity of that conclusion. We identify four problems with theory and research in charismatic–transformational leadership. First, a clear conceptual definition of charismatic–transformational leadership is lacking. Current theories advance multi-dimensional conceptualizations of charismatic–transformational leadership without specifying how these different dimensions combine to form charismatic–transformational leadership, or how dimensions are selected for inclusion or exclusion. Second, theories fail to sufficiently specify the causal model capturing how each dimension has a distinct influence on mediating processes and outcomes and how this is contingent on moderating influences. Third, conceptualization and operationalization confounds charismatic–transformational leadership with its effects. Fourth, the most frequently used measurement tools are invalid in that they fail to reproduce the dimensional structure specified by theory and fail to achieve empirical distinctiveness from other aspects of leadership. Given that these problems are fundamental and inherent in the approaches analyzed, it is recommended that current approaches be abandoned, and that the field forego the label of charismatic–transformational leadership in favor of the study of more…

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Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) identified numerous problems with transformational leadership theory and measurement.
“Van Knippenberg and Sitkin (2013) identified numerous problems with transformational leadership theory and measurement.”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Critiques of transformational and authentic leadership point out that the conceptualisation and operationalisation of these prominent leadership styles confound the variable with its effects.
“Both critiques point out that the conceptualisation and operationalisation of these prominent leadership styles confound the variable with its effects.”
From A meta-analysis of the role of trust in the leadership- performance relationship (2021) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin 2013
Sustained efforts to the contrary confound characteristics with behaviors and behaviors with their effects, creating dangerous threats to validity that undermine the utility of leadership research.
“Sustained efforts to the contrary confound characteristics with behaviors and behaviors with their effects, creating dangerous threats to validity that undermine the utility of leadership research (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Focusing on component-level items increases construct validity because it reduces the risk of measuring a phenomenon by its antecedents or outcomes.
“An additional advantage to focusing on component-level items is that narrower item breadth further increases construct validity because it reduces the risk of measuring a phenomenon by its antecedents or outcomes, a practice that creates an additional threat to validity that is germane to the moral leadership and the broader leadership literature alike (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Questions of similar theory, mechanisms, measurements, and outcomes have been asked of virtually all branches of leadership research for decades.
“questions of similar theory, mechanisms, measurements, and outcomes have been asked of virtually all branches of leadership research for decades”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013

The leadership literature is often criticized for its overreliance on empiricism and absence of strong theory, whereas the philosophy and ethics literatures are in need of rigorous empiricism to test their many theories.
“Whereas the leadership literature is often criticized for its overreliance on empiricism and absence of strong theory (e.g., van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013), the philosophy and ethics literatures are conversely in need of rigorous empiricism to test their many theories (Widdershoven & van der Scheer, 2008).”
From Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership (2019) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Criticism of survey-based leadership measures has been raised with moral approaches to leadership, including transformational, ethical, authentic, and servant leadership receiving the most attention.
“Criticism of survey-based leadership measures has been raised with moral approaches to leadership, including transformational, ethical, authentic, and servant leadership receiving the most attention (Fischer & Sitkin, 2023; Fischer et al., in press; van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Van Knippenberg and Sitkin contended that the problems with transformational leadership were so serious that leadership research and practice are better off abandoning the construct of charismatic-transformational leadership.
“They contended that these problems were so serious ' that leadership research and practice are better off abandoning the construct of charismatictransformational leadership ' (p. 2).”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013
Strong recommendations that transformational leadership research be abandoned or that positive leadership suffers from a fatal flaw are extreme and inappropriate.
“casting such strong recommendations, for example, that transformational leadership research be abandoned (van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013) or that positive leadership suffers from a ' fatal ' fl aw (Fischer et al., in press) as extreme and inappropriate.”
From The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions (2025) · cites this paper as van Knippenberg & Sitkin, 2013

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Reuvers, M., Engen, M. L. V., Vinkenburg, C. J., & Wilson‐Evered, E. (2008) · Creativity and Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8691.2008.00487.x · Cited by 318 · see citing works
The Oxford handbook of personality and social psychology
(2012) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.50-0573 · Cited by 313 · see citing works
Ceo Transformational Leadership: The Role of Goal Importance Congruence in Top Management Teams
Colbert, A. E., Kristof‐Brown, A. L., Bradley, B., & Barrick, M. R. (2008) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2008.30717744 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Effects of leadership style, anonymity, and rewards on creativity-relevant processes and outcomes in an electronic meeting system context
Kahai, S. S., Sosik, J. J., & Avolio, B. J. (2003) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(03)00049-3 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
Transformational leadership and the dissemination of organizational goals: A case study of a telecommunication firm
Berson, Y., & Avolio, B. J. (2004) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.07.003 · Cited by 292 · see citing works
The relationship between leadership and follower in‐role performance and satisfaction with the leader
Bartram, T., & Casimir, G. (2007) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730710718218 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
FAMILY‐FRIENDLY PROGRAMS, ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, AND WORK WITHDRAWAL: THE MODERATING ROLE OF TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP
Wang, P., & Walumbwa, F. O. (2007) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2007.00078.x · Cited by 281 · see citing works
The moderating role of individual differences in the relation between transformational/transactional leadership perceptions and organizational identification
Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.06.005 · Cited by 278 · see citing works
Transformational and charismatic leadership: Assessing the convergent, divergent and criterion validity of the MLQ and the CKS
Rowold, J., & Heinitz, K. (2007) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.01.003 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Are transformational leaders fair? A multi-level study of transformational leadership, justice perceptions, and organizational citizenship behaviors
Cho, J., & Dansereau, F. (2010) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.03.006 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership, Job Characteristics, and Organizational Citizenship Performance
Purvanova, R. K., Bono, J. E., & Dzieweczynski, J. L. (2005) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1901_1 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
CEO charisma, compensation, and firm performance
Tosi, H. L., Misangyi, V. F., Fanelli, A., Waldman, D. A., & Yammarino, F. J. (2004) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.02.010 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
Traditionality matters: an examination of the effectiveness of transformational leadership in the United States and Taiwan
Spreitzer, G. M., Perttula, K. H., & Xin, K. (2005) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.315 · Cited by 254 · see citing works
The role of personal values in the charismatic leadership of corporate managers: A model and preliminary field study
Sosik, J. J. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.01.002 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
A Multilevel Model of Transformational Leadership and Adaptive Performance and the Moderating Role of Climate for Innovation
Charbonnier‐Voirin, A., Akremi, A. E., & Vandenberghe, C. (2010) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601110390833 · Cited by 251 · see citing works
Examining the Mechanisms Linking Transformational Leadership, Employee Customer Orientation, and Service Performance: The Mediating Roles of Perceived Supervisor and Coworker Support
Liaw, Y.-J., Chi, N., & Chuang, A. (2009) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-009-9145-x · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Integrating managerial perceptions and transformational leadership into a work‐unit level model of employee involvement
Richardson, H. A., & Vandenberg, R. (2005) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.329 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Using positivity, transformational leadership and empowerment to combat employee negativity
Avey, J. B., Hughes, L. W., Norman, S. M., & Luthans, K. W. (2008) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730810852470 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
The interactive effects of belongingness and charisma on helping and compliance.
Hartog, D. N. D., Hoogh, A. H. B. D., & Keegan, A. E. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.4.1131 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Affective Commitment to Change and Innovation Implementation Behavior: The Role of Charismatic Leadership and Employees’ Trust in Top Management
Michaelis, B., Stegmaier, R., & Sonntag, K. (2009) · Journal of Change Management · doi:10.1080/14697010903360608 · Cited by 216 · see citing works
The role of transformational leadership in enhancing team reflexivity
Schippers, M. C., Den Hartog, D. N., Koopman, P. L., & van Knippenberg, D. (2008) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726708096639 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
The impact of transformational CEOs on the performance of small- to medium-sized firms: Does organizational context matter?
Yan, L., Şimşek, Z., Lubatkin, M., & Veiga, J. F. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.923 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Transformational leadership and followers' attitudes: the mediating role of psychological empowerment
Castro, C. B., Periñán, M. D. M. V., & Bueno, J. C. C. (2008) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585190802324601 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Examining the antecedents of knowledge sharing in facilitating team innovativeness from a multilevel perspective
Liu, Y., & Phillips, J. S. (2010) · International Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2010.05.002 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Neuroticism and locus of control as moderators of the relationships of charismatic and autocratic leadership with burnout.
Hoogh, A. H. B. D., & Hartog, D. N. D. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016253 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Examining the relationship of leadership and physical distance with business unit performance
Howell, J. M., Neufeld, D. J., & Avolio, B. J. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.01.004 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
Transformational leadership, goal difficulty, and job design: independent and interactive effects on employee outcomes
Whittington, J. L., Goodwin, V. L., & Murray, B. (2004) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.07.001 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Elaborating the construct of transformational leadership: The role of affect
Brown, D. J., & Keeping, L. M. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.01.003 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Leadership and fairness: The state of the art
van Knippenberg, D., David De Cremer, A., & van Knippenberg, B. (2007) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320701275833 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
Stirring the hearts of followers: Charismatic leadership as the transferal of affect.
Erez, A., Misangyi, V. F., Johnson, D. E., LePine, M. A., & Halverson, K. C. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.3.602 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership and Work-Related Attitudes: The Moderating Effects of Collective and Self-Efficacy Across Cultures
Walumbwa, F. O., LAWLER, J. J., Avolio, B. J., Wang, P., & Shi, K. (2005) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190501100301 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Leadership, Individual Differences, and Work‐related Attitudes: A Cross‐Culture Investigation
Walumbwa, F. O., LAWLER, J. J., & Avolio, B. J. (2007) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00241.x · Cited by 183 · see citing works
The role of regulatory fit in visionary leadership
Stam, D. A., van Knippenberg, D., & Wisse, B. (2010) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.624 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
The moderating role of safety-specific trust on the relation between safety-specific leadership and safety citizenship behaviors.
Conchie, S. M., & Donald, I. (2009) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014247 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Proactively performing teams: The role of work design, transformational leadership, and team composition
Williams, H., Parker, S. K., & Turner, N. (2010) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317910x502494 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Leadership Theory and Research
Harrison, C. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-68672-1 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Moderating role of subordinates' attitudes on transformational leadership and effectiveness: A multi-cultural and multi-level perspective
Jung, D.-I., Yammarino, F. J., & Lee, J. K. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.04.011 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Charismatic leadership and task feedback
Shea, C. M., & Howell, J. M. (1999) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/s1048-9843(99)00020-x · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Identification of Transformational Leadership Qualities: An Examination of Potential Biases
Lievens, F. (1997) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943297399015 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Are We On the Same Page? Effects of Self-Awareness of Empowering and Transformational Leadership
Tekleab, A. G., Sims, H. P., Yun, S., Tesluk, P. E., & Cox, J. F. (2007) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1071791907311069 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
Group Leaders as Gatekeepers: Testing Safety Climate Variations across Levels of Analysis
Zohar, D. M., & Luria, G. (2010) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2010.00421.x · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Employee positive moods as a mediator linking transformational leadership and employee work outcomes
Tsai, W., Chen, H.-W., & Cheng, J. (2009) · The International Journal of Human Resource Management · doi:10.1080/09585190802528714 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
Charismatic leadership, environmental dynamism, and performance
Hoogh, A. H. B. D., Hartog, D. N. D., Koopman, P. L., Thierry, H., van den Berg, P., der Weide, J. G. V., & Wilderom, C. P. M. (2004) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320444000164 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Middle Manager Leadership and Frontline Employee Performance: Bypass, Cascading, and Moderating Effects
Yang, J., Zhang, Z., & Tsui, A. S. (2009) · Journal of Management Studies · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6486.2009.00902.x · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Transformational leadership and outcomes: role of relationship duration
Krishnan, V. R. (2005) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730510617654 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Climate strength – How leaders form consensus
Luria, G. (2008) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2007.12.004 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Language and power: an empirical analysis of linguistic strategies used in superior-subordinate communication
Morand, D. A. (2000) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/(sici)1099-1379(200005)21:3 · Cited by 133 · see citing works
Leadership style and regulatory mode: Value from fit?
Benjamin, L., & Flynn, F. J. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.01.008 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Do you feel what I feel? Mood contagion and leadership outcomes
Johnson, S. K. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.06.012 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership, Cohesion Perceptions, and Employee Cynicism About Organizational Change
Wu, C., Neubert, M. J., & Yi, X. (2007) · The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science · doi:10.1177/0021886307302097 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
The utility of transactional and transformational leadership for predicting performance and satisfaction within a path‐goal theory framework
Vecchio, R. P., Justin, J. E., & Pearce, C. L. (2007) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x202482 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Transformational and transactional leadership styles, followers' positive and negative emotions, and performance in German nonprofit orchestras
Rowold, J., & Rohmann, A. (2009) · Nonprofit Management and Leadership · doi:10.1002/nml.240 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
An investigation of path-goal and transformational leadership theory predictions at the individual level of analysis
Schriesheim, C. A., Castro, S. L., Zhou, X., & DeChurch, L. A. (2005) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.10.008 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Age differences between leader and followers as a moderator of the relationship between transformational leadership and team performance
Kearney, E. (2008) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317907x256717 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Linking Leader Skills, Follower Attitudes, and Contextual Variables via an Integrated Model of Charismatic Leadership
Groves, K. S. (2005) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206304271765 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Impact of transformational leadership on followers’ influence strategies
Krishnan, V. R. (2004) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730410512778 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Performance implications of sales strategy: The moderating effects of leadership and environment
Panagopoulos, N. G., & Avlonitis, G. J. (2009) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2009.11.001 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Age-Based Faultlines and Perceived Productive Energy: The Moderation of Transformational Leadership
Kunze, F., & Bruch, H. (2010) · Small Group Research · doi:10.1177/1046496410366307 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Relationships Between Leadership and Followers’ Quitting Intentions and Job Search Behaviors
Hughes, L. W., Avey, J. B., & Nixon, D. R. (2010) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051809358698 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
Transforming with levity: humor, leadership, and follower attitudes
Hughes, L. W., & Avey, J. B. (2009) · Leadership & Organization Development Journal · doi:10.1108/01437730910981926 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior: OCB-Specific Meanings as Mediators
Jiao, C., Richards, D. A., & Zhang, K. (2010) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-010-9168-3 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Teams’ reactions to conflict and teams’ task and social outcomes: The moderating role of transformational and emotional leadership
Ayoko, O. B., & Callan, V. J. (2009) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2009.07.001 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Social distance as a moderator of the effects of transformational leadership: Both neutralizer and enhancer
Cole, M. S., Bruch, H., & Shamir, B. (2009) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726709346377 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Mediating Role of Creative Identity in the Influence of Transformational Leadership on Creativity: Is There a Multilevel Effect?
Wang, P., & Zhu, W. (2010) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051810368549 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Chief executive leadership style, consensus decision making, and top management team effectiveness
Flood, P. C., Hannan, E., Smith, K. G., Turner, T. R., West, M. A., & Dawson, J. (2000) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943200417984 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
Maintaining an open mind to closed individuals: The effect of resource availability and leadership style on the association between openness to experience and organizational commitment
Moss, S. A., McFarland, J., Ngu, S., & Kijowska, A. (2006) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.03.009 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Are the Best Leaders Both Transformational and Transactional? A Pattern-oriented Analysis
O’Shea, P. G., Foti, R. J., Hauenstein, N. M. A., & Bycio, P. (2009) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/1742715009102937 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Transformational leadership and commitment: A multilevel analysis of group-level influences and mediating processes
Korek, S., Felfe, J., & Zaepernick-Rothe, U. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320902996336 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
On Charisma and Need for Leadership
de Vries, R. E. (1999) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/135943299398465 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Factor structure of the transformational leadership model in human service teams
Garman, A. N., Davis‐Lenane, D., & Corrigan, P. W. (2003) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.201 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Is Charisma Hyper‐Romanticism? Empirical Evidence from New Data and a Meta‐Analysis
Schyns, B., Felfe, J., & Blank, H. (2007) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00302.x · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The Effect of Follower Regulatory Focus and Extraversion on Leadership Behavior
Moss, S. A., Ritossa, D. A., & Ngu, S. (2006) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001.27.2.93 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
When Leaders Are Seen as Transformational: The Effects of Organizational Justice1
David De Cremer, A., van Dijke, M., & Bos, A. E. R. (2007) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2007.00238.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Conflict, leadership, and market orientation
Mengüç, B., & Auh, S. (2008) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2007.08.001 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Transformational leadership as a mediator of the relationship between behavior‐based control and salespeople's key outcomes
Panagopoulos, N. G., & Dimitriadis, S. (2009) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/03090560910961498 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
When authorities influence followers' affect: The interactive effect of procedural justice and transformational leadership
David De Cremer, A. (2006) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320600627662 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Adding fuel to fire: The impact of followers' arousal on ratings of charisma.
Pastor, J. C., Mayo, M. C., & Shamir, B. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.6.1584 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
The impact of consensus and agreement of leadership perceptions on commitment, Organizational Citizenship Behaviour, and customer satisfaction
Felfe, J., & Heinitz, K. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320802708070 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Testing Behling and McFillen’s Syncretical Model of Charismatic Transformational Leadership
Mccann, J. A. J., Langford, P. H., & Rawlings, R. (2006) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601104273061 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership and Group Climate-Empirical Results from Symphony Orchestras
Boerner, S., & von Streit, C. F. (2005) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190501200203 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Transformational Leadership, Team Goal Fulfillment, and Follower Work Satisfaction
Wolfram, H., & Mohr, G. (2008) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/1548051808326595 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Presidential Scandal and Leadership: A Natural Laboratory Test of the Resiliency of President Clinton's Transformational Leadership During the Impeachment Crisis1
Pillai, R., Stites‐Doe, S., & Brodowsky, G. H. (2004) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2004.tb01998.x · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Leader Affective Displays and Attributions of Charisma: The Role of Arousal
Damen, F., van Knippenberg, D., & van Knippenberg, B. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00405.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works

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Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current theoretical trends and changing perspectives
Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Gardner, W. L., Meuser, J. D., Liden, R. C., & Hu, J. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005 · Cited by 1,426 · see citing works
Paradox research in management science: Looking back to move forward
Schad, J., Lewis, M. W., Raisch, S., & Smith, W. K. (2016) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/19416520.2016.1162422 · Cited by 1,385 · see citing works
Followership theory: A review and research agenda
Uhl-Bien, M., Riggio, R. E., Lowe, K. B., & Carsten, M. K. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.007 · Cited by 1,213 · see citing works
Leadership, creativity, and innovation: A critical review and practical recommendations
Hughes, D. J., Lee, A., Tian, A. W., Newman, A., & Legood, A. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.03.001 · Cited by 1,080 · see citing works
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Leadership behavior and employee well-being: An integrated review and a future research agenda
Inceoglu, I., Thomas, G., Chu, C., Plans, D., & Gerbasi, A. (2018) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.12.006 · Cited by 670 · see citing works
A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy
Banks, G. C., McCauley, K. D., Gardner, W. L., & Guler, C. E. (2016) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.02.006 · Cited by 681 · see citing works
Enhancing employee creativity via individual skill development and team knowledge sharing: Influences of dual‐focused transformational leadership
Dong, Y., Bartol, K. M., Zhang, Z., & Li, C. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2134 · Cited by 619 · see citing works
Taking Stock of Moral Approaches to Leadership: An Integrative Review of Ethical, Authentic, and Servant Leadership
Lemoine, G. J., Hartnell, C. A., & Leroy, H. (2019) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2016.0121 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Empowering leadership: Construct clarification, conceptualization, and validation of a new scale
Amundsen, S., & Martinsen, Ø. L. (2013) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.009 · Cited by 560 · see citing works
Leadership and Job Demands-Resources Theory: A Systematic Review
Tummers, L. G., & Bakker, A. B. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.722080 · Cited by 505 · see citing works
Creating High‐Impact Literature Reviews: An Argument for ‘Integrative Reviews’
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On doing better science: From thrill of discovery to policy implications
Antonakis, J. (2017) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2017.01.006 · Cited by 483 · see citing works
Leadership in applied psychology: Three waves of theory and research
Lord, R. G., Day, D. V., Zaccaro, S. J., Avolio, B. J., & Eagly, A. H. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000089 · Cited by 461 · see citing works
Turning their pain to gain: charismatic leader influence on follower stress appraisal and job performance
LePine, M. A., Zhang, Y., Crawford, E. R., & Rich, B. L. (2016) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2013.0778 · Cited by 459 · see citing works
Transformational leadership and performance outcomes: Analyses of multiple mediation pathways
Ng, T. W. H. (2016) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.11.008 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Daily transformational leadership: A source of inspiration for follower performance?
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O. K., & Espevik, R. (2022) · European Management Journal · doi:10.1016/j.emj.2022.04.004 · Cited by 446 · see citing works
Instrumental leadership: Measurement and extension of transformational–transactional leadership theory
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Leadership and organizational change for implementation (LOCI): a randomized mixed method pilot study of a leadership and organization development intervention for evidence-based practice implementation
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Charisma: An ill-defined and ill-measured gift
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Authors: van Knippenberg, D., & Sitkin, S. B.
Affiliations: Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University
Duke University (US)
ORCID: Sitkin, Sim B.
Venue: Academy of Management Annals
Publisher: Academy of Management
Published: 2013-06
Volume: 7
Issue: 1
Pages: 1-60
ISSN: 1941-6067 (ISSN-L)
1941-6520
DOI: 10.5465/19416520.2013.759433
OpenAlex: W4232157136
Cited by: 1,302
References: 168
Citations by year: 2026: 74 · 2025: 84 · 2024: 85 · 2023: 126 · 2022: 129 · 2021: 113 · 2020: 131 · 2019: 104 · 2018: 112 · 2017: 105 · 2016: 91 · 2015: 76 · 2014: 48 · 2013: 23 · 2012: 1
FWCI: 163.26
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Academy of Management Annals (publishedVersion)
EUR Research Repository (Erasmus University Rotterdam) (submittedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Employee Performance and Leadership
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Strategy and Management › Leadership and Management in Organizations
Social Sciences › Business, Management and Accounting › Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management › Job Satisfaction and Organizational Behavior
Keywords: charismatic leadership, transformational leadership, leadership theory, conceptual definitions, causal models, measurement validity, dimensional structure, operationalization, mediating mechanisms

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A Critical Assessment of Charismatic—Transformational Leadership Research: Back to the Drawing Board?

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