Comparative and Interactive Human Psychopharmacologic Effects of Ketamine and Amphetamine: Implications for Glutamatergic and Dopaminergic Model Psychoses and Cognitive Function
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BACKGROUND: In healthy individuals, ketamine hydrochloride and amphetamine sulfate produce cognitive, behavioral, and subjective effects resembling endogenous psychoses. Studying the comparative and interactive effects of these agents may provide insights into the roles of the glutamate and monoamine systems in psychosis and cognition. OBJECTIVES: To directly compare the effects of ketamine and amphetamine and to explore their interactive effects within individuals. DESIGN: Placebo-controlled, randomized, double-blind psychopharmacologic trial. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Forty-one healthy individuals recruited from the community who completed up to 4 test days. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: On each test day, participants received amphetamine (a 1-minute infusion of amphetamine sulfate, 0.25 mg/kg, or saline) and ketamine (a 1-minute intravenous infusion of ketamine, 0.23 mg/kg, followed by a 1-hour infusion of 0.5 mg/kg or an identical saline bolus and infusion). The order of amphetamine and ketamine infusions was randomized. RESULTS: At the doses studied, ketamine and amphetamine produced positive symptoms and euphoria. However, perceptual changes were produced only by ketamine, and hostility, grandiosity, and somatic concern were stimulated only by amphetamine. Amphetamine and ketamine produced conceptual disorganization, but only ketamine produced concrete ideation and unusual mannerisms. Ketamine produced negative symptoms and disrupted delayed recall. Ketamine and amphetamine showed 3 types of interactive effects: (1) amphetamine attenuated the impairment of working memory produced by ketamine; (2) amphetamine and ketamine had additive effects on thought disorder, arousal, and euphoria; and (3) amphetamine and ketamine had less-than-additive effects on psychosis. CONCLUSIONS: These findings implicate N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors and dopamine systems in psychosis. However, glutamate and dopamine may differentially contribute to psychosis, thought disorder, and euphoria. Regarding medication development for cognitive dysfunction, the pattern of the interactive effects of ketamine and amphetamine is consistent with the hypothesis that facilitation of prefrontal cortical dopamine levels would attenuate some cognitive impairments associated with deficits in N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function.
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One study found that amphetamine impairs verbal learning and memory.
“while one study found that AMP impairs verbal learning and memory (Krystal et al., 2005).”
From Systematic reviews of the acute effects of amphetamine on working memory and other cognitive performances in healthy individuals, with a focus on the potential influence of personality traits (2023) · cites this paper as Krystal et al., 2005
Four of eight studies using CPT, RIP, or RVIP reported that amphetamine improves performance accuracy or reaction time.
“Four of the eight studies reported that AMP improves performance accuracy or reaction time (RT): four measured performance using CPT (Bhakta et al., 2022; Fleming et al., 1995; Krystal et al., 2005; Patat et al., 1996) but only two of them found main effects of AMP.”
From Systematic reviews of the acute effects of amphetamine on working memory and other cognitive performances in healthy individuals, with a focus on the potential influence of personality traits (2023) · cites this paper as Krystal et al., 2005
One study reported impairments of immediate and delayed recalls after AMP administration.
“while one study reported impairments of immediate and delayed recalls after AMP administration (Krystal et al., 2005).”
From Systematic reviews of the acute effects of amphetamine on working memory and other cognitive performances in healthy individuals, with a focus on the potential influence of personality traits (2023) · cites this paper as Krystal et al., 2005
Psychotomimetic models, especially ketamine-based, support the E/I imbalance hypothesis.
“Psychotomimetic models (eg, models that mimic the symptoms of psychosis), especially those based on ketamine (an antagonistic agent of NMDA-R), also support the E/I imbalance hypothesis.”
From Are hallucinations due to an imbalance between excitatory and inhibitory influences on the brain? (2016) · cites this paper as [13]
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D'Souza, D. C., Singh, N., Elander, J., Carbuto, M., Pittman, B., de Haes, J. U., Sjogren, M., Peeters, P., Ranganathan, M., & Schipper, J. (2012) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2011.295 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
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“Of the studies reviewed, for instance, Krystal et al. (2005) applied the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) task to test WM and reported that AMP modifies WM, but it has to be noted that HVLT mainly measures verbal learning and memory capacity instead of WM (Savla et al., 2007).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
- Authors
- Krystal, J. H., Perry, E. B., Gueorguieva, R., Belger, A., Madonick, S. H., Abi-Dargham, A., Cooper, T. B., MacDougall, L., Abi-Saab, W., & D’Souza, D. C.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Columbia University (US)
- Venue
- Archives of General Psychiatry
- Publisher
- American Medical Association (AMA)
- Published
- 2005-09-01
- Volume
- 62
- Issue
- 9
- Pages
- 985
- ISSN
- 0003-990X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2071199266
- Cited by
- 317
- References
- 69
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 10 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 16 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 13 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 13 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 18 · 2014: 18 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 21
- FWCI
- 8.09
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- doi.org
- Locations
- Archives of General Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Newcastle University ePrints (Newcastle Univesity)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5k05aa014906-03)
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (P50 AA-12870-03, K05 AA014906-01, P50AA012870)
- National Institute of Mental Health (P50MH068789)
- National Center for Research Resources (M01RR000125)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology › Treatment of Major Depression
- Keywords
- ketamine, amphetamine, psychosis, NMDA receptor, dopamine, glutamate, thought disorder, euphoria, working memory, cognitive impairment, drug interactions, conceptual disorganization, negative symptoms, prefrontal cortex
- MeSH terms
- Amphetamine, Cognition, Dopamine, Double-Blind Method, Drug Interactions, Glutamine, Humans, Ketamine, Placebos, Psychoses, Substance-Induced, Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate, Prefrontal Cortex
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