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Cited by 128Morphological variations and asymmetryForensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology StudiesFace recognition and analysis

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 87 of the 87 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 35 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Facial aging trajectories: A common shape pattern in male and female faces is disrupted after menopause

Open access
Windhager, Sonja, Mitteroecker, Philipp, Rupić, Ivana, Lauc, Tomislav, Polašek, Ozren, Schaefer, Katrin·2019·American Journal of Physical Anthropology
DOI 10.1002/ajpa.23878PMC PMC6771603
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Abstract

Objectives: Despite variation in lifestyle and environment, first signs of human facial aging show between the ages of 20–30 years. It is a cumulative process of changes in the skin, soft tissue, and skeleton of the face. As quantifications of facial aging in living humans are still scarce, we set out to study age‐related changes in three‐dimensional facial shape using geometric morphometrics. Materials and methods: We collected surface scans of 88 human faces (aged 26–90 years) from the coastal town Split (Croatia) and neighboring islands. Based on a geometric morphometric analysis of 585 measurement points (landmarks and semilandmarks), we modeled sex‐specific trajectories of average facial aging. Results: Age‐related facial shape change was similar in both sexes until around age 50, at which time the female aging trajectory turned sharply. The overall magnitude of facial shape change (aging rate) was higher in women than men, especially in early postmenopause. Aging was generally associated with a flatter face, sagged soft tissue (“broken” jawline), deeper nasolabial folds, smaller visible areas of the eyes, thinner lips, and longer nose and ears. In postmenopausal women, facial aging was best predicted by the years since last menstruation and mainly attributable to bone resorption in the mandible. Discussion: With high spatial and temporal resolution, we were able to extract a shared facial aging pattern in women and men, and its divergence after menopause. This fully quantitative three‐dimensional analysis of human facial aging may not only find applications in forensic and ancient human facial reconstructions, but shall include lifestyle and endocrinological measures, and also reach out to studies of social perception.

Overview

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Using 3D surface scans and geometric morphometrics, this study finds a shared average facial aging pattern in men and premenopausal women, with female faces aging faster. After menopause, the female trajectory bends sharply and is better predicted by years since last menstruation than by chronological age, mainly reflecting mandibular bone resorption.

Key findings

  • Among 88 Croatian adults (32 men aged 27.7–82.9 years; 56 women aged 26.0–89.8 years), age-related facial shape change was similar in both sexes until about age 50, when the female aging trajectory turned sharply.
  • Male facial shape regression on age was significant (p < .001), explaining 7% of total shape variation and 38% of regression-score variance; in women younger than 55 years it explained 15% of total shape variance and 40% of regression-score variance (p < .0001).
  • In women beyond age 50, chronological age had little explanatory power (2% explained variance, not significant), whereas time since last menstruation predicted 5% of total facial shape variance and 35% of regression scores (p < .0001), mainly via reduced mandibular size, particularly the chin.
  • Female facial aging rate was higher than male: about twice as fast before age 50 and after age 60, and up to three times faster between ages 50 and 60.

Methods

  • Cross-sectional sample of 88 Croatian adults from Split and the islands Korčula and Vis, collected as part of the 10,001 Dalmatians project; faces were surface scanned with an Artec MHT scanner between May 2013 and May 2014.
  • Each face was parameterized by 585 landmarks and semilandmarks (40 fixed landmarks, 64 curve semilandmarks, 481 surface semilandmarks), slid to minimize bending energy, superimposed by Generalized Procrustes Analysis, and symmetrized.
  • Sex-specific average aging trajectories were estimated by local linear regressions in a moving window of 23 individuals; principal component analysis summarized age-specific mean shapes, and aging rate was computed as the average amount of shape change in Procrustes distance per year.

Limitations

  • The authors state that because of the sample structure, they did not measure individual aging sensu stricto but estimated sex-specific average patterns, and could not assess associations with individual lifestyle, endocrine status, or molecular aging markers.
  • The authors note the sample is a relatively homogeneous Croatian “genetic isolate,” which they argue is appropriate as a proxy for longitudinal data and may generalize to other European-descent populations, but they call for further study of within- and between-population variation and environmental factors.
  • Evident from the text: the sample is modest (88 faces; 26 postmenopausal women), cross-sectional, and some figure visualizations extrapolate beyond the sampled age range, so individual-level and longitudinal inferences are limited.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/ajpa.23878

Cites

87 of 87 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Verification

Claims the paper makes

2 of 35 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

  • Premisecitation

    Bone resorption is primarily controlled by estrogen in both sexes.

    “Both hormones are known to affect bone metabolism, but bone resorption is primarily controlled by estrogen in both sexes (Clarke & Khosla, 2010; Falahati‐Nini et al., 2000; Khosla, Melton, & Riggs, 2001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Clarke & Khosla, 2010 source
    • cites Falahati‐Nini et al., 2000 source

      The study summary (p. 1) and conclusion (p. 7) identify estrogen as the dominant sex steroid regulating bone resorption in normal elderly men. The Introduction (p. 1) says estrogen’s role in women’s bone metabolism is well established, but does not specifically establish that estrogen primarily controls bone resorption in women; the study itself examined only elderly men. (LLM, conf=0.87)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Khosla, Melton, & Riggs, 2001 source
  • Interpretationreasoning

    Postmenopausal facial aging is mainly attributable to bone resorption in the mandible.

    “In postmenopausal women, facial aging was best predicted by the years since last menstruation and mainly attributable to bone resorption in the mandible.”
    • Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · hedged
      “This sex difference presumably results from the various hormonal changes during menopause and andropause, which are dominated by the estrogen reduction in females and the testosterone reduction in males.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Clarke & Khosla, 2010 source
    • cites Falahati‐Nini et al., 2000 source

      The study description (p. 1) and discussion (Table 4, p. 7) concern hormone-related bone resorption in elderly men, not facial aging or mandibular bone in postmenopausal women. Searches for facial aging, mandibular resorption, and years since last menstruation found no passage addressing the attributed claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)

      Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
    • cites Khosla, Melton, & Riggs, 2001 source
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
    • Rests on an assumption: Self-reported menopause status and time since last menstruation are accurate.
    • Rests on an assumption: Time since last menstruation is a valid proxy for menopausal hormonal changes.
  • Findingown data

    Aging is associated with a drooping tip of the nose.

    “Further characteristics of advanced age were relatively thin lips, a drooping tip of the nose, and lengthened ears (Figures 4 and 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
  • Findingown data

    Between 50 and 60 years, the sex difference in aging rate is up to three times faster in females.

    “Before age 50 and also after age 60, female faces age—on average—about twice as fast as male faces; between 50 and 60 years, this sex difference in aging rate is even more pronounced (up to three times faster).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
  • Findingown data

    Aging is associated with lengthened ears.

    “Further characteristics of advanced age were relatively thin lips, a drooping tip of the nose, and lengthened ears (Figures 4 and 5).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
  • It may state two separate claims as one. 18
  • Probably not a substantial claim. 13

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The overall magnitude of facial shape change (aging rate) was higher in women than men, especially in early postmenopause.

    “The overall magnitude of facial shape change (aging rate) was higher in women than men, especially in early postmenopause.”
    • Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
      “The female rate of facial aging (the average amount of shape change per year) is higher than the male rate (Figure 7).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
    • Rests on an assumption: The facial aging pattern observed in this Croatian sample applies to humans generally.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The time since the last menstruation predicted 5% of total facial shape variance in postmenopausal women and 35% of the regression scores (p < .0001).

    “In contrast to chronological age, however, the time since the last menstruation predicted 5% of total facial shape variance in postmenopausal women and 35% of the regression scores (p < .0001).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
    • Rests on an assumption: Self-reported menopause status and time since last menstruation are accurate.
    • Rests on an assumption: Time since last menstruation is a valid proxy for menopausal hormonal changes.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Women's rate of facial aging decreased from 57 to 60 years and increased again thereafter.

    “Women generally had a faster average rate of facial aging than men, but it started to increase considerably at about 52–55 years; it decreased from 57 to 60 years and increased again thereafter.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Before age 50 and after age 60, female faces age on average about twice as fast as male faces.

    “Before age 50 and also after age 60, female faces age—on average—about twice as fast as male faces; between 50 and 60 years, this sex difference in aging rate is even more pronounced (up to three times faster).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The rate of facial aging (average magnitude of facial shape change) was relatively constant in males and increased only after 60-65 years.

    “Independent of changes in aging pattern, we found that the rate of aging (the average magnitude of facial shape change, regardless of the pattern of shape change) was relatively constant in males and increased only after 60–65 years.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The linear regression of face shape on age in males was statistically significant (p < .001) and accounted for 7% of total shape variation and 38% of the variance in the regression score.

    “The linear regression of face shape on age in males was statistically significant (p < .001) and accounted for 7% of total shape variation and for 38% of the variance in the regression score (projection of shape vectors on the vector of regression coefficients).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    Age-related facial shape change was similar in both sexes until around age 50, at which time the female aging trajectory turned sharply.

    “Age‐related facial shape change was similar in both sexes until around age 50, at which time the female aging trajectory turned sharply.”
    • Also stated in: § RESULTS · plain
      “The female trajectory consisted of two approximately linear segments, separated by a sharp bend at about 50 years of age.”
    • Also stated in: § DISCUSSION · boosted
      “We demonstrated a shared average facial aging pattern in men and premenopausal women, but an average pace of aging twice as high in females than in males.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.
    • Rests on an assumption: The facial aging pattern observed in this Croatian sample applies to humans generally.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The regression of face shape on age in women beyond 50 years of age had little explanatory power (2% explained variance) and was not statistically significant.

    “The regression of face shape on age in women beyond 50 years of age had little explanatory power (2% explained variance) and was not statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Findingown data

    The female aging trajectory changed starkly in direction after age 50, indicating a different facial aging pattern.

    “Thereafter, however, the female aging trajectory changed starkly in direction, indicating a different facial aging pattern (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Collagen loss is associated with the number of postmenopausal years, not chronological age.

    “Further support comes from reported associations of collagen loss with the number of postmenopausal years, not chronological age (reviewed in Tobin, 2017).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tobin, 2017 source

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Serum estradiol concentration decreases 2 years before the final menstrual period, has a maximal rate of change around the final menstrual period, and after another 2 years stabilizes at about one third of the level before the decrease.

    “They reported a decrease of serum estradiol concentration 2 years before the final menstrual period and a maximal rate of change around the final menstrual period. After another 2 years, the concentration stabilizes at about one third of the level before the decrease.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Randolph et al. (2011)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Study design and conductown data

    The local linear regressions in the second half of the female trajectory were somewhat unstable.

    “This is also reflected by the somewhat unstable local linear regressions in the second half of the female trajectory (Figure 3).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Chinese people of the same chronological age differed by about plus or minus 6 years in terms of 'facial age', and the amount of deviation increases after age 40.

    “Similarly, Chen et al. (2015) found that Chinese people of the same chronological age differed by about plus or minus 6 years in terms of “facial age” (i.e., the age predicted from facial morphology) and that the amount of deviation increases after age 40.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al. (2015) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    Our findings resemble the 3D visualizations of facial aging from Chinese and Czech samples.

    “Our findings resemble the 3D visualizations of facial aging from Chinese and Czech samples (Chen et al., 2015; Mydlová et al., 2015) as well as the qualitative and quantitative descriptions of single regions as reviewed in the introductory paragraphs.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chen et al., 2015 source
    • cites Mydlová et al., 2015

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    The epidemic of coronary heart disease in industrialized countries following increased consumption of dietary fats has a greater toll on males than females, accounting for 26% of male excess life years lost in the United States.

    “Also, the epidemic of coronary heart disease in industrialized countries following several decades after increased consumption of dietary fats seems to have a greater toll on males than females (Lawlor, Ebrahim, & Davey Smith, 2001), accounting for 26% of male excess life years lost in the United States (Kruger & Nesse, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Lawlor, Ebrahim, & Davey Smith, 2001 source
    • cites Kruger & Nesse, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    30% of skin collagen is lost in the first five postmenopausal years, with an average decline of 2% per year over a period of 15 years.

    “Brincat et al. (2005) also concluded, based on a wide literature review, that 30% of skin collagen is lost in the first five postmenopausal years, with an average decline of 2 % per year over a period of 15 years.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Brincat et al. (2005) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    The geometric morphometric approach to studying facial aging may contribute to facial imaging and reconstruction in forensic anthropology.

    “Our geometric morphometric approach to study facial aging may contribute to facial imaging and reconstruction in forensic anthropology meeting the increasing demands for scientific and statistical rigor in case analysis and reporting (Algee‐Hewitt, Kim, & Hughes, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Algee‐Hewitt, Kim, & Hughes, 2018

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Higher male mortality rates are found for all age categories in Croatian data from 1998 to 2002, and this holds true cross-nationally.

    “Kruger and Nesse (2006) calculated this ratio for Croatian data from 1998 to 2002, and found higher male mortality rates for all age categories, which holds true cross‐nationally (Kruger & Nesse, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kruger and Nesse (2006)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Kruger & Nesse, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    Claes et al. (2014) limited the age of their participants to between 18 and 40 to minimize age-related variation in facial morphology.

    “Some quantitative approaches do not explicitly represent facial aging: For instance, in their landmark paper on modeling facial appearance from DNA, Claes et al. (2014) limited the age of their participants to the ages between 18 and 40 to “minimize age‐related variation in facial morphology” (p. 10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Claes et al. (2014) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    Menopause accelerates biological aging, as found using methylation levels as epigenetic aging markers.

    “Similarly, using methylation levels as epigenetic aging markers, Levine and colleagues (2016) found that menopause accelerates biological aging.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Levine and colleagues (2016)

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Interpretationreasoning

    A single linear shape regression across the whole female sample would have overlooked the nonlinear aging pattern in females; only local regressions made it possible to detect it.

    “A single linear shape regression across the whole female sample, as performed in earlier studies, would have overlooked this signal; only the use of local regressions made it possible to detect the nonlinear aging pattern in females.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

  • It may state two separate claims as one.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study did not measure individual aging sensu stricto, but estimated sex-specific average patterns of facial aging in this population.

    “Due to our sample structure, we did not measure individual aging sensu stricto, but estimated the sex‐specific average patterns of facial aging in this population.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.

    Premisecitation

    African faces tend to have thicker facial tissue than any other group, and Japanese faces have thinner tissues than most other groups except for the side of the head.

    “For instance, African faces tend to have thicker facial tissue than any other group, and Japanese faces have thinner tissues than most other groups except for the side of the head (Wilkinson, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wilkinson, 2004 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Premisecitation

    The average age at natural menopause in European countries is 50.5 years.

    “In a meta‐analysis on age at natural menopause, European countries showed an average age of 50.5 years (Schoenaker, Jackson, Rowlands, & Mishra, 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Schoenaker, Jackson, Rowlands, & Mishra, 2014 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.

    Interpretationcitation

    Part of the sex difference in mortality is explained by behavioral differences attributable to larger male reproductive variation and the resulting evolutionarily shaped preference for risk taking.

    “Part of this is explained by behavioral differences that can be attributed to larger male reproductive variation and the resulting evolutionarily shaped preference for risk taking.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
25 of 25

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Cross-sectional age differences in facial shape reflect longitudinal aging trajectories.

    “The sequences of age‐ and sex‐specific average shapes, as predicted by the local regressions, were interpreted as the male and female trajectories of average facial aging.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Self-reported menopause status and time since last menstruation are accurate.

    “Twenty‐six women reported that they were postmenopausal and when they had their last menstruation; none of them had hormonal replacement therapy.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The facial aging pattern observed in this Croatian sample applies to humans generally.

    “Facial aging trajectories: A common shape pattern in male and female faces is disrupted after menopause”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Time since last menstruation is a valid proxy for menopausal hormonal changes.

    “In contrast to chronological age, however, the time since the last menstruation predicted 5% of total facial shape variance in postmenopausal women and 35% of the regression scores (p < .0001).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Physiological and lifestyle data are usually unavailable in forensic case identification.

    “Nonetheless, the average facial aging pattern is most relevant to aid forensic case identification, where physiological and lifestyle data usually are unavailable.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The threshold for detecting patterns due to biological causes of facial shape variation (such as aging) is lower in the Eastern Adriatic genetic isolate than in a more heterogeneous reference population.

    “Along these lines, we expect the threshold for detecting patterns due to biological causes of facial shape variation (such as aging) to be lower than in a more heterogenous reference population.”
6 of 6

Citations

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 2

  1. 10.1046/j.1524-4725.2000.00270.x · DOI
  2. Rudan I., 2006, The land of 1000 islands, Croatian Medical Journal, 47, 523

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Metadata

Authors
Windhager, S., Mitteroecker, P., Rupić, I., Lauc, T., Polašek, O., & Schaefer, K.
Affiliations
  • University of Vienna (AT)
  • Department of Theoretical Biology University of Vienna Austria
  • Dental Clinic Apolonija Zagreb Croatia
  • University of Zagreb (HR)
  • Gen-info (HR)
  • Department of Evolutionary Anthropology University of Vienna Austria
Corresponding author
Windhager, Sonja
ORCID
Venue
American Journal of Physical Anthropology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2019-06-12
Volume
169
Issue
4
Pages
678-688
ISSN
  • 0002-9483 (ISSN-L)
  • 1096-8644
DOI
10.1002/ajpa.23878
PMC
PMC6771603
OpenAlex
W2951808774
Semantic Scholar
cd907a8e5c073caafb9b32e69424084cdba74b49
Cited by
128
References
86
Citations by year
2026: 11 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 19 · 2022: 21 · 2021: 15 · 2020: 9
FWCI
8.73
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • American Journal of Physical Anthropology (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • Austrian Science Fund (P29397)
  • Hrvatska Zaklada za Znanost (05‐PAR‐02‐2016)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Ecology, Evolution, Behavior and Systematics › Morphological variations and asymmetry
  • Social Sciences › Arts and Humanities › Archeology (arts and humanities) › Forensic Anthropology and Bioarchaeology Studies
  • Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Face recognition and analysis
Keywords
facial aging, menopause, sex differences, geometric morphometrics, mandibular resorption, nasolabial fold, facial soft tissue, facial reconstruction, skeletal remains
MeSH terms
Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Anthropology, Physical, Face, Female, Humans, Male, Menopause, Middle Aged, Models, Statistical

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