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A meta‐analysis of coffee drinking, cigarette smoking, and the risk of Parkinson's disease
Abstract
We conducted a systematic review to summarize the epidemiological evidence on the association between cigarette smoking, coffee drinking, and the risk of Parkinson's disease. Case–control and cohort studies that reported the relative risk of physician‐confirmed Parkinson's disease by cigarette smoking or coffee drinking status were included. Study‐specific log relative risks were weighted by the inverse of their variances to obtain a pooled relative risk and its 95% confidence interval (CI). Results for smoking were based on 44 case–control and 4 cohort studies, and for coffee 8 case–control and 5 cohort studies. Compared with never smokers, the relative risk of Parkinson's disease was 0.59 (95% CI, 0.54–0.63) for ever smokers, 0.80 (95% CI, 0.69–0.93) for past smokers, and 0.39 (95% CI, 0.32–0.47) for current smokers. The relative risk per 10 additional pack‐years was 0.84 (95% CI, 0.81–0.88) in case–control studies and 0.78 (95% CI, 0.73–0.84) in cohort studies. Compared with non–coffee drinkers, relative risk of Parkinson's disease was 0.69 (95% CI, 0.59–0.80) for coffee drinkers. The relative risk per three additional cups of coffee per day was 0.75 (95% CI, 0.64–0.86) in case–control studies and 0.68 (95% CI, 0.46–1.00) in cohort studies. This meta‐analysis shows that there is strong epidemiological evidence that smokers and coffee drinkers have a lower risk of Parkinson's disease. Further research is required on the biological mechanisms underlying this potentially protective effect.
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“To put this into perspective, the risk reduction documented in this meta-analysis (OR ϭ 0.67) was of a similar order of magnitude to the PD risk reductions previously noted with caffeine consumption or smoking, 8”
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Atypical cancer pattern in patients with Parkinson's disease
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BackgroundVisual symptoms in Parkinson's disease and Parkinson's disease dementia
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Association of Cumulative Lead Exposure with Parkinson’s Disease
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ResultInfluentialSerum Cholesterol Levels and the Risk of Parkinson's Disease
de Lau, L. M. L., Koudstaal, P. J., Albert Hofman, D., & Breteler, M. M. B. (2006) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwj283 · Cited by 205
“Additional adjustments were made for smoking habits, vitamin E intake, and coffee consumption, because all of these factors have been related to a decreased risk of Parkinson’s disease ( 11 , 12) and probably are associated with concentrations of total and high density lipoprotein cholesterol (13).”
BackgroundBody mass index and the risk of Parkinson disease
Hu, G., Jousilahti, P., Nissinen, A., Antikainen, R., Kivipelto, M., & Tuomilehto, J. (2006) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000247052.18422.e5 · Cited by 203
Caffeine and Coffee as Therapeutics Against Alzheimer's Disease
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Parkinson's disease: Evidence for environmental risk factors
Kieburtz, K. D., & Wunderle, K. B. (2012) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.25150 · Cited by 199
Caffeine Intake and Dementia: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Santos, C. D., Costa, J. N., dos Santos, J. P., Carneiro, A. V., & Lunet, N. (2010) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-2010-091387 · Cited by 199
“However, studies on the etiologic role of caffeine intake are less frequent than those focusing on the effects of tobacco, as shown in two meta-analyses addressing the association between coffee drinking, cigarette smoking and Parkinson’s disease, with 13 and 48 individual studies, respectively [33].”
Crippa, A., Discacciati, A., Larsson, S. C., Wolk, A., & Orsini, N. (2014) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwu194 · Cited by 191
Environment, lifestyle, and Parkinson's disease: Implications for prevention in the next decade
Marras, C., Canning, C. G., & Goldman, S. M. (2019) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.27720 · Cited by 199
“Despite these challenges, greater caffeine intake and higher levels of vitamin D have been shown in multiple studies and meta-analyses to be inversely associated with PD.(62,63) Longitudinal studies documenting reduced caffeine intake prior to the onset of PD have demonstrated an inverse association supporting its cla…”
BackgroundAssociation between cigarette smoking and Parkinson’s disease: A meta-analysis
Li, X., Li, W., Liu, G., Shen, X., & Tang, Y. (2015) · Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1016/j.archger.2015.08.004 · Cited by 190
“…factors might be linked to PD. Results from the present meta-analyses suggested a strong inverse association between active cigarette smoking and PD, which is in accordance with earlier studies (Hernán et al., 2002; Allam, Campbell, Castillo et al., 2004; Allam, Campbell, Hofman et al., 2004).”
InfluentialTan, E., Tan, C. I. C., Fook-Chong, S. M. C., Lum, S. Y., Chai, A., Chung, H., Shen, H., Zhao, Y., Teoh, M. L., Yih, Y., et al. (2003) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2003.07.006 · Cited by 189
“A recent meta-analysis demonstrates smoking and coffee to reduce the risk of PD by 60% and 30% [5].”
BackgroundMethodEvans, A. H. (2005) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.065417 · Cited by 184
Coffee consumption and disease correlations
Gökcen, B. B., & Şanlıer, N. (2017) · Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition · doi:10.1080/10408398.2017.1369391 · Cited by 197
Tan, L. C. S., Koh, W., Yuan, J., Wang, R., Au, W., Tan, J.-H., Tan, E., & Yu, M. C. (2007) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwm338 · Cited by 190
“A metaanalysis involving eight case-control and four cohort studies showed that daily coffee drinkers, compared with nondrinkers, have a lower risk of Parkinson’s disease (relative risk ¼ 0.69, 95 percent confidence interval: 0.59, 0.80) ( 3 ).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialProspective study of coffee consumption and risk of Parkinson’s disease
Sääksjärvi, K., Knekt, P., Rissanen, H., Laaksonen, M. A., Reunanen, A., & Männistö, S. (2008) · European Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602788 · Cited by 182
“Among dietary factors, coffee consumption has been considered to reduce the risk of Parkinson’s disease (Hernan et al., 2002).”
Driver, J. A. (2014) · Biogerontology · doi:10.1007/s10522-014-9523-2 · Cited by 184
“One is the fact that people who develop PD tend to be lifelong non-smokers (Hernan et al. 2002).”
BackgroundConsumers’ Perceptions of Coffee Health Benefits and Motives for Coffee Consumption and Purchasing
Samoggia, A., & Riedel, B. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11030653 · Cited by 179
Neural Systems Governed by Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors: Emerging Hypotheses
Miwa, J. M., Freedman, R., & Lester, H. A. (2011) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2011.03.014 · Cited by 205
“The most common example of such a desensitizing response to nicotine occurs at the presynaptic terminals of nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons (Xiao et al., 2009). two—when one considers that it derives from retrospective epidemiological studies (Hernán et al., 2002).”
Cancer and Neurodegeneration: Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea
Plun‐Favreau, H., Lewis, P. A., Hardy, J., Martins, L. M., & Wood, N. W. (2010) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001257 · Cited by 176
Serum Iron Levels and the Risk of Parkinson Disease: A Mendelian Randomization Study
Pichler, I., Del Greco M., F., Gögele, M., Lill, C. M., Bertram, L., Do, C. B., Eriksson, N., Foroud, T., Myers, R. H., PD GWAS Consortium, et al. (2013) · PLoS Medicine · doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001462 · Cited by 173
Parkinson’s Disease and the Gastrointestinal Microbiome
Lubomski, M., Tan, A. H., Lim, S.-Y., Holmes, A. J., Davis, R. L., & Sue, C. M. (2020) · Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1007/s00415-019-09320-1 · Cited by 172
“Furthermore, although debated, epidemiological studies suggest a smoking history may confer approximately 60% reduced risk of developing PD, whilst coffee consumption was found to reduce the risk by 30% [108, 109].”
BackgroundRisk factors for dementia with Lewy bodies
Boot, B. P., Orr, C., Ahlskog, J. E., Ferman, T. J., Roberts, R. O., Pankratz, V. S., Dickson, D. W., Parisi, J. E., Aakre, J. A., Geda, Y. E., et al. (2013) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e3182a2cbd1 · Cited by 174
Caffeine Intake, Smoking, and Risk of Parkinson Disease in Men and Women
Liu, R., Guo, X., Park, Y., Huang, X., Sinha, R. R., Freedman, N. D., Hollenbeck, A. R., Blair, A. E., & Chen, H. (2012) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwr451 · Cited by 186
Malignant Melanoma and Other Types of Cancer Preceding Parkinson Disease
Olsen, J. H., Friis, S. R., & Frederiksen, K. (2006) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/01.ede.0000229445.90471.5e · Cited by 171
“These findings are in accord with the findings of large prospective studies, which have all shown that the incidence of Parkinson disease is approximately 60% lower among current smokers and 40% lower among past smokers than among those who have never smoked and that the risk reduction diminishes with time after quitt…”
BackgroundResultProjection of the prevalence of Parkinson's disease in the coming decades: Revisited
Rossi, A., Berger, K., Chen, H., LESLIE, D. L., Mailman, R. B., & Huang, X. (2017) · Movement Disorders · doi:10.1002/mds.27063 · Cited by 170
“This also holds true for the degree of risk modification due to smoking that is used in the model, which also varies in the literature.(9,15) A recent study by Savica and colleagues(32) demonstrated that the incidence of PD might have increased during the 30-year time period from 1976 to 2005.”
Parkinson’s disease is associated with DNA methylation levels in human blood and saliva
Chuang, Y., Paul, K. C., Bronstein, J. M., Bordelon, Y. M., Horvath, S., & Ritz, B. R. (2017) · Genome Medicine · doi:10.1186/s13073-017-0466-5 · Cited by 171
Gout and risk of Parkinson disease
Alonso, Á., Rodríguez, L. A. G., Logroscino, G., & Hernán, M. Á. (2007) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000279518.10072.df · Cited by 166
Self-citationGene–environment interactions: Key to unraveling the mystery of Parkinson's disease
Gao, H., & Hong, J. (2011) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.03.005 · Cited by 166
Postural Instability in Parkinson’s Disease: A Review
Palakurthi, B., & Burugupally, S. P. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9090239 · Cited by 180
“Caffeine, a nonselective antagonist of adenosine receptors, has been known to decrease the risk of PD [74], with a greater reduction of the PIGD subtype risk when compared to the TD subtype [12,75,76].”
ResultA Prospective Cohort Study of Cancer Incidence Following the Diagnosis of Parkinson's Disease
Driver, J. A., Logroscino, G., Buring, J. E., Gaziano, J. M., & Kurth, T. (2007) · Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention · doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-07-0038 · Cited by 164
Parkinson disease and smoking revisited
Ritz, B. R., Lee, P., Lassen, C. F., & Arah, O. A. (2014) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000000879 · Cited by 161
Preventing Parkinson’s Disease: An Environmental Agenda
Miranda, B. R. D., Goldman, S. M., Miller, G. W., Greenamyre, J. T., & Dorsey, E. R. (2021) · Journal of Parkinson s Disease · doi:10.3233/jpd-212922 · Cited by 171
“Because the553 pathological elevation in LRRK2 kinase activity554 induced by environmental toxicants is similar to555 LRRK2 gain-of-function mutations, pharmaceuti-556 cal inhibiton of LRRK2 by small molecule kinase557 inhibitors currently under clinical review [107],558 could be appropriate for individuals following…”
BackgroundInfluentialNeurologic Manifestations of Chronic Methamphetamine Abuse
Rusyniak, D. E. (2013) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2013.02.005 · Cited by 164
Metadata
- Authors
- Hernán, M. A., Takkouche, B., Caamaño‐Isorna, F., & Gestal‐Otero, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Universidade de Santiago de Compostela (ES)
- Venue
- Annals of Neurology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05-29
- Volume
- 52
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 276-284
- ISSN
- 0364-5134 (ISSN-L)
- 1531-8249
- OpenAlex
- W2053969387
- Cited by
- 818
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 21 · 2025: 28 · 2024: 24 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 28 · 2021: 48 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 43 · 2016: 36 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 40 · 2012: 35
- FWCI
- 3.39
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Annals of Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Clinical Neurology › Parkinson's Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Pharmacology (medical) › Coffee research and impacts
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Nuclear Receptors and Signaling
- Keywords
- Parkinson's disease, coffee consumption, cigarette smoking, pack-years, disease risk, protective factors, neurodegeneration
- MeSH terms
- Coffee, Humans, Parkinson Disease, Risk Factors, Smoking, Cohort Studies, Case-Control Studies
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