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Cited by 142Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorBreastfeeding Practices and InfluencesStress Responses and Cortisol

Detection of salivary oxytocin levels in lactating women

Open access
White‐Traut, Rosemary, Watanabe, Kaoru, Pournajafi‐Nazarloo, Hossein, Schwertz, Dorie, Bell, Aleeca, Carter, C. Sue·2009·Developmental Psychobiology
DOI 10.1002/dev.20376PMC PMC2767206
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Abstract

Oxytocin is a neuropeptide with widespread influence on many physiological and social functions including: labor and birth, lactation, sexual behavior, nurturing maternal behaviors, and stress reduction. However, our understanding of oxytocin's roles has been hampered by lack of noninvasive methods for assessing oxytocin levels. The goal of the present study was to assess whether oxytocin could be detected in saliva and whether changes occurred in the pattern of oxytocin release among lactating women from before, at initiaton and after breast feeding. Using a prospective repeated measures design, 11 research participants each provided 18 saliva samples during three feeding cycles (before, at initiation and after breast feeding) for two 24‐hr data collection periods (Days 1 and 2). Within each day, saliva was collected at late evening, early morning, and late morning. Salivary samples were concentrated fourfold by dehydration prior to analysis and oxytocin was measured in saliva using an enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Salivary oxytocin values, when reconverted to their original levels, ranged from 6.44 to 61.05 pg/ml. Oxytocin values in saliva varied significantly as a function of the breast feeding cycle, but did not show reliable differences as a function of the time of feeding. Oxytocin was highest before feeding, followed by a decrease at initiation of feeding, and an increase at 30 min after feeding. The findings suggest that oxytocin release into saliva increases in anticipation of feedings. This study also supports the potential usefulness of salivary measures of oxytocin as a noninvasive index of changes in this peptide. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev. Psychobiol 51: 367–373, 2009.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This study found that oxytocin can be detected in saliva from lactating women using an enzyme immunoassay after fourfold concentration, with a consistent pattern across breastfeeding cycles. Salivary oxytocin was highest before feeding, decreased at feeding initiation, and rose again 30 minutes after feeding.

Key findings

  • Oxytocin was detected in all 196 analyzed saliva samples, with values ranging from 6.44 to 61.05 pg/ml.
  • Combining Day 1 and Day 2, oxytocin was highest before feeding (38.30 ± 2.12 pg/ml), lowest at initiation of feeding (16.58 ± 1.14 pg/ml), and intermediate 30 minutes after feeding (23.15 ± 1.03 pg/ml); the change was significant [F(2,62) = 39.05, p < .001], and all three pairwise post-hoc comparisons were significant at p < .017.
  • The same pattern appeared separately on Day 1 [F(2,31) = 18.94, p < .01] and Day 2 [F(2,29) = 20.87, p < .01], and did not differ reliably by time of feeding.
  • The authors interpret the pre-feeding peak as suggesting that oxytocin release into saliva increases in anticipation of feedings.

Methods

  • Prospective repeated measures design with 11 exclusively breastfeeding women; mean maternal age was 35 years (SD = 3.90), mean infant age was 3.67 months (SD = 2.08), and data were collected in participants’ homes.
  • Each participant provided 18 saliva samples over two 24-hour periods, covering three feeding sessions (late evening, first morning, late morning) and three points per feeding cycle: within 30 minutes before feeding, at initiation, and 30 minutes after completion.
  • Saliva was concentrated fourfold by dehydration/reconstitution and oxytocin was measured by EIA (Assay Designs); analysis used repeated measures ANOVA and Bonferroni-adjusted paired t tests.

Limitations

  • The paper states that home collection produced variation in feeding and saliva collection times, especially for the first morning feeding; it also relied on self-report, had only 11 participants, and calls for larger samples and circadian-rhythm assessment with a narrower infant age range.
  • The paper states that optimal sample preparation, storage, saliva stimulation, and the relationship between salivary oxytocin and blood, urine, or CSF oxytocin remain unknown.
  • Evident from the text: there was no standardized feeding time and no observed confirmation of sample collection, and the design had no control group or non-lactating comparison; the sample was small and predominantly Caucasian (n = 9), with one Mexican American and one Asian American participant.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/dev.20376

Cites

35 of 35 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 8 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Oxytocin was detected in all saliva samples (n = 196) via EIA.

    “Oxytocin levels were detected in all samples (n = 196) via EIA”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “thus confirming that oxytocin can be detected in human saliva”
    • Also stated in: § Conclusion · hedged
      “this study offers further support for the hypothesis that oxytocin is detected in saliva during lactation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.
  • Findingown data

    Salivary oxytocin values ranged from 6.44 to 61.05 pg/ml over the course of the study.

    “ranging from 6.44 pg/ml to 61.05 pg/ml over the course of the study”
    • Also stated in: § Abstract · plain
      “Salivary oxytocin values, when reconverted to their original levels, ranged from 6.44 – 61.05 pg/ml.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.
  • Findingown data

    Preliminary results indicated that oxytocin concentrations in saliva samples were usually below the lowest standard (3.9 pg/ml).

    “Preliminary results indicated that oxytocin concentrations in saliva samples were usually below the lowest standard (3.9 pg/ml).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Oxytocin levels were highest before feeding.

    “Oxytocin levels were the highest before feeding (Day 1: 40.48 ± 3.09 pg/ml, Day 2: 35.98 ± 2.89 pg/ml)”
    • Also stated in: § Oxytocin Patterns Across the Breast Feeding Cycle · plain
      “Oxytocin levels were the highest before feeding (38.30 ± 2.12 pg/ml)”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “The highest oxytocin levels were identified before feeding.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.
  • Findingown data

    The change in oxytocin during a breast feeding cycle was statistically significant.

    “The change in oxytocin during a breast feeding cycle was statistically significant [Day 1: F(2, 31) = 18.94, p < .01; Day 2: F(2, 29) = 20.87, p < .01].”
    • Also stated in: § Oxytocin Patterns Across the Breast Feeding Cycle · plain
      “The change in oxytocin from the first through the third sample collection was statistically significant [F(2,27) = 54.56, p < .05].”
    • Also stated in: § Oxytocin Patterns Across the Breast Feeding Cycle · plain
      “A repeated measures ANOVA yielded a statistically significant change in oxytocin from the first through the third sample collection [F(2,62) = 39.05, p < .001].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.
  • May combine two claims. 12
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 7

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The data from the present study were highly consistent and left no question that oxytocin was highest during the pre-feeding period.

    “However, the data from the present study were highly consistent and left no question that oxytocin was highest during the pre-feeding period.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Post-hoc paired t-tests showed significant differences between before feeding vs initiation of feeding, initiation of feeding vs after feeding, and before feeding vs after feeding.

    “Post-hoc paired t-test (two-tailed) analyses using a Bonferroni adjustment (0.05/3) yielded significant differences between before feeding vs. initiation of feeding [t(63) = 8.800, p < .017 (two-tailed)], initiation of feeding vs. after feeding [t(63) = −3.703, p < .017 (two-tailed)], and before feeding vs. after feeding [t(63) = 7.218, p < .017 (two-tailed)].”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin levels showed a similar repeating pattern between Day 1 and Day 2 and across each breast feeding cycle.

    “showed a similar repeating pattern between Day 1 and Day 2 and across each breast feeding cycle”
    • Also stated in: § Oxytocin Patterns Across the Breast Feeding Cycle · plain
      “A similar pattern of change in oxytocin was identified in both Day 1 and Day 2 samples.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Oxytocin increased at 30 minutes after completion of feeding, although it did not reach the pre-feeding level.

    “followed by a moderate increase after feeding (Day 1: 24.43 ± 1.51 pg/ml, Day 2: 21.78 ± 1.37 pg/ml)”
    • Also stated in: § Oxytocin Patterns Across the Breast Feeding Cycle · plain
      “an increase at 30 minutes after the feeding (23.15 ± 1.03 pg/ml)”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · plain
      “By 30 minutes post completion of feeding, oxytocin significantly increased, although it did not reach the pre-feeding level.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    The present data support and extend previous research measuring plasma oxytocin suggesting maternal anticipation of breastfeeding is associated with a rise in plasma oxytocin.

    “The present data support and extend previous research measuring plasma oxytocin, which suggested that maternal anticipation of breastfeeding is associated with a rise in plasma oxytocin, especially in association with a baby’s restlessness or crying (McNeilly, Robinson, Houston, & Howie, 1983).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites McNeilly, Robinson, Houston, & Howie, 1983

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The assay was previously used to measure salivary oxytocin in men following a shoulder massage, detecting a small increase in oxytocin via saliva and plasma (p < .05), with oxytocin levels 1-2 pg/ml in saliva and 150-250 pg/ml in plasma.

    “This assay was previously used to measure salivary oxytocin in men following a shoulder massage (Bello, 2007).”
    • Also stated in: § Enzyme Immunoassay Method · plain
      “Following the massage, a small increase in oxytocin was detected via saliva and plasma samples (p < .05), with oxytocin levels detected at 1 – 2 pg/ml in saliva and 150–250 pg/ml in plasma.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bello, 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    The salivary oxytocin assay was based on prior research with voles and the specificity of the antibody used in the Assay Designs was determined through HPLC prior to immunoassay using previously described methods.

    “The salivary oxytocin assay was based on prior research with voles (Kramer, Cushing, Carter, Wu, & Ottinger, 2004) and the specificity of the antibody used in the Assay Designs was determined through HPLC (high pressure liquid chromatography) prior to immunoassay using previously described methods (Carter et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Kramer, Cushing, Carter, Wu, & Ottinger, 2004

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Carter et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    One recent published study reported that meaningful levels of oxytocin could not be measured in saliva by EIA.

    “One recent published study reported that meaningful levels of oxytocin could not be measured in saliva by EIA (Horvat-Gordon et al., 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Horvat-Gordon et al., 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    A total of 198 samples were collected; inadequate saliva samples contributed toward missing data for only two aliquots, thus the final sample was 196.

    “A total of 198 samples were collected. Inadequate saliva samples contributed toward missing data for only two aliquots, thus the final sample was 196.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    This study was performed with 11 participants.

    “This study was performed with 11 participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The unsuccessful study also used extraction in some attempts, which might have reduced the amount of measurable peptide.

    “In addition, the unsuccessful study also used extraction in some of their attempts, which might have reduced the amount of measurable peptide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    There was variation in the time of saliva collection within each feeding cycle.

    “There was also variation in the time of saliva collection within each feeding cycle.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    During the milk-ejection reflex, pulsatile waves of oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary and cause milk to be released from alveoli into ducts that open into nipple pores.

    “During the milk-ejection reflex, pulsatile waves of oxytocin are released from the posterior pituitary and cause milk to be released from alveoli into ducts that open into nipple pores (Riordan, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Riordan, 2005

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All samples were refrigerated immediately after collection and stored at −80 °C within 4 hours after retrieval (and within 24 hours of the first sample collection).

    “All samples were refrigerated immediately after collection and stored at −80 °C within 4 hours after retrieval (and within 24 hours of the first sample collection).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This study offers further support for the hypothesis that oxytocin is detected in saliva during lactation at levels that change consistently, and that oxytocin can be measured if the assay in use has sufficient sensitivity.

    “However, this study offers further support for the hypothesis that oxytocin is detected in saliva during lactation at levels that change consistently, and that oxytocin can be measured if the assay in use has sufficient sensitivity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Salivary oxytocin levels can serve as a noninvasive index of changes in oxytocin release.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The time of feeding was not standardized and varied across participants.

    “Since infants and mothers already have set feeding patterns, the time of feeding was not standardized and thus varied as indicated here.”
    • Also stated in: § Limitations · plain
      “There was a large variation in the time of feeding, especially for the first morning feeding.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
16 of 16

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Salivary oxytocin levels can serve as a noninvasive index of changes in oxytocin release.

    “This study also supports the potential usefulness of salivary measures of oxytocin as a noninvasive index of changes in this peptide.”
    “Having a reliable measurement of oxytocin via saliva will allow a better understanding of the factors regulating oxytocin release”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Mothers correctly collected and timed saliva samples according to the study instructions.

    “Furthermore, because the mothers were retrieving the samples in the home, we relied on self-report.”
    “To more precisely confirm correct saliva retrieval, further research should evaluate the length of time it took for collection of each sample and the exact timing of the saliva collection in relationship to the starting of the feeding.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Salivary oxytocin remains stable under the collection and storage procedures used.

    “All samples were refrigerated immediately after collection and stored at −80 °C within 4 hours after retrieval (and within 24 hours of the first sample collection).”
    “Further research is needed to document the optimal preparation and storage of samples for assays, i.e. necessity of immediate refrigeration or freezing, length of time samples can remain unrefrigerated, and length of frozen storage time of samples prior to assay.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Circadian rhythm does not confound the observed pattern of salivary oxytocin across feeding cycles.

    “Furthermore, future research is needed to assess the influence of a circadian rhythm on oxytocin levels by utilizing a narrower infant age range, and retrieving more detail as to night and day light and sleep patterns.”
    “Thus, this pattern of change in oxytocin did not differ by the time of day.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Salivary OT measured by immunoassay is a reliable biomarker, is stable over time, and correlates with plasma OT and OT-related processes such as breastfeeding.

    “recent studies across several labs have shown that salivary OT measured by immunoassay is a reliable biomarker, is stable over time, and correlates with plasma OT and OT-related processes, such as breastfeeding (10,30,(45)(46)(47).”

    From Oxytocin administration to parent enhances infant physiological and behavioral readiness for social engagement (2012) · cites this paper as [47]

  • White-Traut et al. (2009) documented that salivary oxytocin levels increased in a consistent manner during the 30-min period immediately before mothers began to breast-feed their infants.

    “This is not inconsistent with the only previous investigation of salivary OT in breast-feeding mothers, which did not include a formula-feeding comparison group, and simply documented that salivary OT levels increased in a consistent manner during the 30-min period immediately before mothers began to breast-feed their infants (White-Traut et al., 2009).”

    From An investigation of plasma and salivary oxytocin responses in breast- and formula-feeding mothers of infants (2010) · cites this paper as White-Traut et al., 2009

  • Recent studies have documented detectable concentrations of OT in saliva using an earlier EIA method without extraction or using the sample method described here.

    “Recent studies have documented detectable concentrations of OT in saliva using an earlier enzyme immunoassay (EIA) method without extraction (White-Traut et al., 2009), or using the sample method described here (Holt-Lunstad, 2008).”

    From An investigation of plasma and salivary oxytocin responses in breast- and formula-feeding mothers of infants (2010) · cites this paper as White-Traut et al., 2009

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • ConsistentF(2, 31) = 18.94reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 31) = 18.94, p < .01”

  • ConsistentF(2, 29) = 20.87reported p < .01 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2, 29) = 20.87, p < .01”

  • ConsistentF(2, 27) = 54.56reported p < .05 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2,27) = 54.56, p < .05”

  • ConsistentF(2, 62) = 39.05reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “F(2,62) = 39.05, p < .001”

  • Consistentt(63) = 8.8reported p < .017 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(63) = 8.800, p < .017”

  • Consistentt(63) = -3.703reported p < .017 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(63) = −3.703, p < .017”

  • Consistentt(63) = 7.218reported p < .017 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(63) = 7.218, p < .017”

7 of 7

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Bello D.(2007).The neurohormonal effects of massage on healthy males. Ph.D. dissertation University of Illinois at Chicago Health Sciences Center United States—Illinois. Retrieved November 21 2008 from Dissertations & Theses at CIC Institutions database. (Publication No. AAT 3294631).

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Related

Authors
White‐Traut, R., Watanabe, K., Pournajafi‐Nazarloo, H., Schwertz, D., Bell, A., & Carter, C. S.
Affiliations
University of Illinois Chicago (US)
Corresponding author
White‐Traut, Rosemary
ORCID
Venue
Developmental Psychobiology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2009-04-13
Volume
51
Issue
4
Pages
367-373
ISSN
  • 0012-1630 (ISSN-L)
  • 1098-2302
DOI
10.1002/dev.20376
PMC
PMC2767206
OpenAlex
W2156758154
Semantic Scholar
90b049c30045bafd20b795d2b5889be97c2ac726
Cited by
142
References
35
Citations by year
2026: 4 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 14 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 4 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 7 · 2012: 8
FWCI
9.54
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Developmental Psychobiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P01 HD48390, P01HD038490)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Breastfeeding Practices and Influences
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
Keywords
salivary oxytocin, lactation, breastfeeding, non-invasive biomarkers, oxytocin release, maternal behavior, neuropeptides
MeSH terms
Adult, Breast Feeding, Female, Humans, Immunoenzyme Techniques, Lactation, Oxytocin, Pregnancy, Prospective Studies, Saliva, Time Factors

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