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Cited by 146Neuroendocrine regulation and behaviorStress Responses and CortisolInfant Health and Development

An investigation of plasma and salivary oxytocin responses in breast- and formula-feeding mothers of infants

Open access
Grewen, Karen M., Davenport, Russell E., Light, Kathleen C.·2010·Psychophysiology
DOI 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00968.xPMC PMC3232406
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Abstract

Oxytocin (OT) is a peptide increasingly studied in relation to human social interactions, affiliation, and clinical disorders. Studies are constrained by use of invasive blood draws and would benefit from a reliable salivary OT assay. Our goals were to examine feasibility of salivary OT measurement, compare salivary to plasma OT responses in 12 breast- and 8 formula-feeding mothers, and assess the degree of correlation between plasma and salivary OT. Using a commercial EIA kit, we measured OT in 5 saliva and 7 plasma samples in a protocol designed to elicit changes in OT (Rest, Infant Interaction, Stress, Feeding). Breast-feeders had higher OT levels than formula-feeders across all conditions in plasma (+36%) and saliva (+23%). OT levels and ranges were similar in saliva and plasma, with slightly greater variance in saliva. Concurrently sampled plasma and salivary OT were correlated at end of Baseline Rest (r=+.59, p=.022) and Post-Stress Recovery (r=+.59, p=.025). These data suggest that salivary OT assay is feasible, and will be of value where plasma samples are not possible. Validation with larger samples is needed.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

In 20 mothers of infants, salivary oxytocin was measurable with a commercial EIA with extraction, and breast-feeding mothers had higher plasma (+36%) and salivary (+23%) OT than formula-feeding mothers across conditions. Concurrent plasma and salivary OT correlated at baseline rest and post-stress recovery (both r = +.59), but not after mother-infant interaction, and feeding-related increases were not statistically significant.

Key findings

  • Salivary OT assay was feasible: only 7% of nearly 100 saliva samples were too thick/viscous or insufficient for reliable extraction, and 3% of saliva samples fell at or below the 2 pg/mL detection limit.
  • Breast-feeding mothers had higher OT across all conditions than formula-feeding mothers in plasma (+36%; 5.56 vs. 4.10 pg/mL; F2,18 = 80.02, p < .0001) and saliva (+23%; 5.51 vs. 4.48 pg/mL; F2,18 = 137.43, p < .0001).
  • Plasma OT decreased from mother-infant interaction to post-interaction rest (4.86 ± 0.49 to 4.16 ± 0.53 pg/mL; t = 2.30, p = .034) and increased from post-interaction rest to speech task (4.16 ± 0.53 to 4.82 ± 0.56 pg/mL; t = −2.67, p = .016); salivary OT increased from baseline to post-interaction rest (4.67 ± 0.47 to 5.62 ± 0.62 pg/mL; t = −2.69, p = .0225).
  • Concurrent plasma and salivary OT correlated at baseline rest (r = +.59, p = .022, n = 15) and post-stress recovery (r = +.59, p = .025, n = 14), but not at post-interaction rest (r = −.04, p = .88).

Methods

  • Twenty healthy mothers were recruited 1–3 months postpartum: 12 breast-feeding for ≥90% of feedings and 8 formula-feeding for ≥80% of feedings. The fixed-order protocol included Baseline Rest, Mother-Infant Video-Taped Interaction, Post-Interaction Rest, Speech Task Stressor, Forehead Cold Pressor, Post-Stress Recovery, and Infant Feeding.
  • Plasma OT was sampled at 7 time points and salivary OT at 5 time points. OT was measured with a commercial EIA kit using an extraction step, samples assayed in duplicate; extraction efficiencies were 96% for plasma and 93% for saliva, with lower limit of sensitivity 2.0 pg/mL after correcting for extraction and intra-/inter-assay variations of 4.8% and 8%.
  • Repeated-measures analyses used Proc Mixed; between-group t-tests compared breast- and formula-feeding mothers at each time point; paired t-tests tested within-subject changes across consecutive conditions; Pearson correlations tested plasma-saliva associations at individual conditions.

Limitations

  • Stated: the sample size of 20 was modest; not all women fed during the habituation period, which may have influenced baseline OT in formula-feeding mothers; breast-fed infants had greater skin and breast contact than formula-fed infants; and plasma and saliva samples were not always obtained within a few minutes of each other under all testing conditions.
  • Evident from the text: salivary OT showed greater variance than plasma OT, some samples were missing or unusable, correlations were assessed only at selected conditions, and feeding-related increases were not statistically significant, with only n = 10 plasma samples during feeding possibly limiting power.

Model-written summary. Check it against the paper before relying on it.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00968.x

Cites

51 of 51 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 16 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    In 12 breast-feeding and 8 formula-feeding mothers, breast-feeders had higher OT levels than formula-feeders across all conditions in saliva (+23%).

    “Breast-feeders had higher OT levels than formula-feeders across all conditions in plasma (+36%) and saliva (+23%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Breast- and formula-feeding mothers in the study were comparable on factors other than feeding status that could affect OT levels.
  • Findingown data

    Concurrently sampled plasma and salivary OT were correlated at end of Baseline Rest (r = +.59, p = .022).

    “Concurrently sampled plasma and salivary OT were correlated at end of Baseline Rest (r = +.59, p = .022) and Post-Stress Recovery (r = +.59, p = .025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Concurrently sampled plasma and salivary OT were correlated at Post-Stress Recovery (r = +.59, p = .025).

    “Concurrently sampled plasma and salivary OT were correlated at end of Baseline Rest (r = +.59, p = .022) and Post-Stress Recovery (r = +.59, p = .025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    In 12 breast-feeding and 8 formula-feeding mothers, breast-feeders had higher OT levels than formula-feeders across all conditions in plasma (+36%).

    “Breast-feeders had higher OT levels than formula-feeders across all conditions in plasma (+36%) and saliva (+23%).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Breast- and formula-feeding mothers in the study were comparable on factors other than feeding status that could affect OT levels.
  • Findingown data

    Only 3% of the saliva samples from 20 mothers yielded values below the threshold of detection.

    “only 3% of the saliva samples from 20 mothers of infants yielded values below the threshold of detection.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 20
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 22

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the study samples, OT levels and ranges were similar in saliva and plasma, with slightly greater variance in saliva.

    “OT levels and ranges were similar in saliva and plasma, with slightly greater variance in saliva.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Plasma oxytocin levels varied between subjects and within subjects across experimental conditions.

    “Plasma OT levels varied between subjects and within-subjects across experimental conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both salivary and plasma oxytocin levels increased after infant feeding compared with the previous post-stress resting recovery period, but these increases were not statistically significant.

    “Both salivary and plasma OT levels increased when measured after infant feeding compared with the previous post-stress resting recovery period; however, these increases were not statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Across each individual time point, differences in mean oxytocin levels between breast- and formula-feeding mothers tended to be greater, and variances tended to be smaller, for plasma oxytocin compared with salivary oxytocin.

    “Across each individual time point in the protocol, differences in mean OT levels between breast- and formula-feeding mothers tended to be greater, and the variances tended to be smaller for plasma OT compared with salivary OT.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data

    Other saliva samples (averaging 2.5 samples per time period) were missing due to other methodological problems.

    “and other samples (averaging 2.5 samples per time period) were missing due to other methodological problems.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    An indwelling venous catheter and long habituation period prior to sampling are necessary to measure true resting levels and to maximize changes elicited solely by experimental manipulation.

    “Thus, an indwelling venous catheter and long habituation period prior to sampling are necessary to measure true resting levels and to maximize changes elicited solely by experimental manipulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductcitation

    The method used to assay OT in saliva was similar to that specifically developed and validated for salivary OT by Carter et al. (2007).

    “The method used to assay OT in saliva was similar to that specifically developed and validated for salivary OT by Carter et al. (2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Carter et al. (2007)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The study was not designed to assess correlations between plasma and saliva samples after stressors or after feeding because saliva sampling occurred 1-10 min after plasma collection.

    “Our study was not designed to assess correlations between plasma and saliva samples after stressors or after feeding since sampling of saliva in those events occurred from 1–10 min after the collection of plasma.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Mothers fed their infants during the feeding period and during the habituation period consistent with their feeding status categorization.

    “Mothers fed their infants during this feeding period (and during the habituation period) consistent with their feeding status categorization (breast-feeding mothers breast-fed their infants during the lab, formula-feeders fed with formula during the lab).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Levels and changes in oxytocin concentration differed between mothers using breast- vs. formula-feeding methods.

    “and between mothers using breast- vs. formula-feeding methods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The sample size of 20 was modest.

    “The sample size of 20 was quite modest”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    In the current sample, 3% of saliva samples fell at or below the minimum detection level of 2 pg/mL and were set at 2.0 pg/ml.

    “In the current sample, 3% of saliva samples fell at or below the minimum detection level of 2 pg/mL (range 0.55–1.98 pg/ml), and were thus set at 2.0 pg/ml.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    White-Traut et al. (2009) documented that salivary oxytocin levels increased in a consistent manner during the 30-min period immediately before mothers began to breast-feed their infants.

    “This is not inconsistent with the only previous investigation of salivary OT in breast-feeding mothers, which did not include a formula-feeding comparison group, and simply documented that salivary OT levels increased in a consistent manner during the 30-min period immediately before mothers began to breast-feed their infants (White-Traut et al., 2009).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites White-Traut et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The result of the extraction procedure ensures that sample concentrations within the assay are above the assay sensitivity level and are detectable on the linear portion of the standard curve.

    “The result of the extraction procedure ensures that sample concentrations within the assay are above the assay sensitivity level and are detectable on the linear portion of the standard curve.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning

    Some variation in baseline oxytocin levels and related responses may have resulted because not all women fed their infants during the habituation period just prior to baseline.

    “Some variation in baseline OT levels and related responses may have resulted because not all women elected to feed their infants during the habituation period just prior to baseline.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Holt-Lunstad et al. (2008) showed that salivary oxytocin samples obtained at home were increased in married couples when they had recently practiced warm listening touch and massage, and were modestly correlated with plasma levels taken 1 week earlier in the clinic.

    “As an example of the latter, Holt-Lunstad et al. (2008) showed that salivary OT samples obtained at home were increased in married couples when they had recently practiced warm listening touch and massage, and were modestly correlated with plasma levels taken 1 week earlier in the clinic.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Holt-Lunstad et al. (2008) source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In this study, breast-feeding infants had greater contact with mothers' skin and breast than formula-fed infants.

    “In addition, in this study breast-feeding infants had greater contact with mothers’ skin and breast than formula-fed infants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Human plasma assays necessitate invasive methods, so OT measures are often limited to clinical settings where blood sampling can be conducted by trained personnel.

    “Because human plasma assays necessitate invasive methods, OT measures are often limited by these technical requirements and are confined to clinical settings where blood sampling can be conducted by personnel trained, at the very least, in phlebotomy methods.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    In the current study, all samples were assayed in duplicate.

    “In the current study, all samples were assayed in duplicate”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All procedures were approved by the university institutional review board and all participants underwent informed consent before testing.

    “All procedures were approved by the university institutional review board and all participants underwent informed consent before testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Saliva oxytocin levels may show a greater lag time in terms of changes, and thus may more closely reflect plasma levels during stable periods when subjects are not showing marked increases or decreases.

    “Thus, saliva levels may show a greater lag time in terms of changes, and thus may more closely reflect plasma levels during stable periods when the subjects are not showing marked increases or decreases.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In recent studies, saliva was collected in subjects' own homes and concurrent plasma was not sampled, so it is unclear whether salivary OT will accurately reflect plasma concentrations.

    “In each of these studies, saliva was collected in subjects’ own homes and concurrent plasma was not sampled, so it is, at present, unclear whether salivary OT will accurately reflect plasma concentrations.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductcitation

    Because of the short half-life of OT peptide (1-6 min), the protease inhibitor Aprotinin was added to each tube to attenuate metabolic breakdown of peptide.

    “Because of the short half-life of OT peptide (1–6 min), the protease inhibitor Aprotinin (500 KIU/mL blood) was added to each tube to attenuate metabolic breakdown of peptide, as per strong recommendation by Assay Designs (Ann Arbor, MI) for this EIA.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Assay Designs

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    After correcting for concentration produced by extraction, the lower limit of sensitivity was 2.0 pg/ml.

    “After correcting for concentration produced by extraction, the lower limit of sensitivity was 2.0 pg/ml.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    OT concentration distributions at each time point were not skewed or kurtotic and therefore are presented as untransformed and unadjusted raw values.

    “OT concentration distributions at each time point were not skewed or kurtotic and therefore are presented as untransformed and unadjusted raw values.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Nineteen of 20 mothers fed for at least 10 min, while one mother fed for approximately 5 min.

    “Nineteen of 20 mothers fed for at least 10 min, while one mother fed for approximately 5 min.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Extraction efficiencies were 96% for plasma and 93% for saliva.

    “Recovery of these known amounts allowed determination of OT extraction efficiencies of 96% for plasma and 93% for saliva.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S1 (asserted).

    Premisenone given

    Whether lactation lowers anxiety and stress responsivity in human mothers is still in question.

    “Whether lactation lowers anxiety and stress responsivity in human mothers is still in question.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Blood samples available for assay decreased as the protocol progressed due to loss of IV access or hemolysis (samples lost at baseline = 0, post-interaction = 2, replay = 3, recovery = 4) and the decision to maintain IV access during feeding in a subsample (n = 10).

    “Blood samples available for assay decreased as the protocol progressed due to loss of IV access or hemolysis (samples lost at baseline = 0, post-interaction = 2, replay = 3, recovery = 4) and our decision to maintain IV access during feeding in a subsample (n = 10).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Recent studies have documented detectable concentrations of OT in saliva using an earlier EIA method without extraction or using the sample method described here.

    “Recent studies have documented detectable concentrations of OT in saliva using an earlier enzyme immunoassay (EIA) method without extraction (White-Traut et al., 2009), or using the sample method described here (Holt-Lunstad, 2008).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites White-Traut et al., 2009 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Holt-Lunstad, 2008 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    A habituation period of at least 30 min followed before start of testing.

    “A habituation period of at least 30 min followed before start of testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning

    The result of this extraction was to concentrate the sample 3.2 times, increasing precision and reducing matrix interference.

    “The result of this extraction was to concentrate the sample 3.2 times, increasing precision and reducing matrix interference.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    The intra- and inter-assay variations for this assay were 4.8% and 8%, respectively.

    “The intra- and inter-assay variations for this assay, which were practically validated and determined using a set control sample with known OT concentration on each plate and in each run, were 4.8% and 8%, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    The method of extraction of OT peptide was the same for both plasma and saliva samples, performed based on the instructions accompanying the currently available EIA kit.

    “the method of extraction of OT peptide was the same for both plasma and saliva samples, performed based on the instructions accompanying the currently available EIA kit.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
34 of 34

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Breast- and formula-feeding mothers in the study were comparable on factors other than feeding status that could affect OT levels.

    “Twenty healthy mothers (12 who reported breast-feeding for 90% or more of feedings, 8 who reported formula-feeding for 80% or more of feedings) were recruited from the community during the perinatal period so that testing could be conducted within the window of 1–3 months postpartum.”

  • The authors state this as an assumption.

    The behavioral conditions in the protocol (Rest, Infant Interaction, Stress, Feeding) elicit changes in OT.

    “Using a commercial EIA kit, we measured OT in 5 saliva and 7 plasma samples in a protocol designed to elicit changes in OT (Rest, Infant Interaction, Stress, Feeding).”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • In the endocrine system, OXT is secreted by the posterior pituitary into the bloodstream to support reproductive processes like uterine contraction and lactation.

    “In the endocrine system, OXT is secreted by the posterior pituitary into the bloodstream to support reproductive processes like uterine contraction and lactation (Grewen et al., 2010; Maud et al., 2018).”

    From Music's context-dependent influence on oxytocin, social bonding, and emotion regulation: a systematic review (2026) · cites this paper as Grewen et al., 2010

    The paper’s Abstract says oxytocin enters peripheral circulation and plays roles in lactation and uterine contraction. It does not identify the posterior pituitary as the site of secretion; instead, it describes oxytocin as produced primarily in the hypothalamus, where it is released into central and peripheral circulations. (LLM, conf=0.87)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Across five changing experimental conditions, breastfeeding mothers had significantly higher levels of oxytocin than bottle-feeding mothers-measured by both plasma and saliva.

    “Across five changing experimental conditions, breastfeeding mothers had significantly higher levels of oxytocin than bottle-feeding mothers—measured by both plasma and saliva.”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Grewen et al. (2010)

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Feeding-group F test has too many numerator degrees of freedom

    Minor

    The reported main effect compares two feeding groups, which gives one numerator degree of freedom, not the reported two. The salivary feeding-group test also reports F2,18.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 1

  1. Keri, 2008, Sharing secrets, Social Neuroscience, 1

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Grewen, K. M., Davenport, R. E., & Light, K. C.
Affiliations
  • University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
  • University of Utah (US)
Corresponding author
Grewen, Karen M.
ORCID
Grewen, Karen M.
Venue
Psychophysiology
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2010-01
Volume
47
Issue
4
Pages
625-32
ISSN
  • 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
  • 1469-8986
DOI
10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00968.x
PMC
PMC3232406
OpenAlex
W2145076831
Semantic Scholar
6c365a1df2c3d30f76671eff8a67b15ffc4b1c2d
Cited by
146
References
51
Citations by year
2026: 1 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 12 · 2018: 20 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 4 · 2014: 10 · 2013: 6 · 2012: 8
FWCI
9.57
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
doi.wiley.com/10.1002/tdm_license_1.1 (tdm, 2069 d)
Locations
  • Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
  • Carolina Digital Repository (University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill) (submittedVersion)
  • UNC Libraries
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5k01da019949-02, K01DA099949, RR-00046)
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (R01HL084222)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (K01DA099949, K01 DA019949, P01DA022446)
  • National Center for Research Resources (RR00046, M01RR000046)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Behavioral Neuroscience › Stress Responses and Cortisol
  • Health Sciences › Health Professions › Pharmacy › Infant Health and Development
Keywords
oxytocin, salivary oxytocin, plasma oxytocin, breastfeeding, bottle feeding, mother-infant interaction, stress response, non-invasive biomarkers, infant feeding
MeSH terms
Adult, Bottle Feeding, Breast Feeding, Humans, Immunoenzyme Techniques, Infant, Infant, Newborn, Male, Middle Aged, Mothers, Oxytocin, Saliva

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