Early Family Experiences and Neural Activity in Rural Pakistani Children: The Differential Role of Gender

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Children in impoverished areas of LMIC are exposed to severe threats to development, such as malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, and poor sanitation.

“Children in impoverished areas of low-and middle-income countries (LMIC) are exposed to severe threats to development, such as malnutrition, lack of access to healthcare, and poor sanitation (Black et al. 2017).”

• cites Black et al. 2017 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In HIC, maternal scaffolding was positively related to cognitive outcomes at preschool age, especially for female infants born with very low birth weight, suggesting that scaffolding may protect the cognitive skills of females in situations of biological risk.

“In HIC, maternal scaffolding was positively related to cognitive outcomes at preschool age, especially for female infants born with very low birth weight, suggesting that scaffolding may protect the cognitive skills of females in situations of biological risk (Lowe et al. 2014).”

• cites Lowe et al. 2014 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

One study in Bangladesh found no association between the quality of the family environment and patterns of brain activity for infants and toddlers.

“One study in Bangladesh found no association between the quality of the family environment and patterns of brain activity for infants and toddlers (Jensen et al. 2021).”

• cites Jensen et al. 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

High-quality early family experiences may partially buffer the impact of wider adversity on brain development, thus protecting the cognitive skills that will be essential for later academic achievement.

“High-quality early family experiences may partially buffer the impact of wider adversity on brain development, thus protecting the cognitive skills that will be essential for later academic achievement (Britto et al. 2017;Shonkoff 2010).”

• cites Britto et al. 2017 sourceSupported
• cites Shonkoff 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Studies showing that maternal scaffolding promotes cognitive skills for children at social and biological risk suggest that scaffolding may also protect brain development from the risk factors associated with adversity.

“However, studies showing that maternal scaffolding promotes cognitive skills for children at social and biological risk (Hughes and Ensor 2009;Lowe et al. 2014) suggest that scaffolding may also protect brain development from the risk factors associated with adversity.”

• cites Hughes and Ensor 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Lowe et al. 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (§3.2; page unavailable) report a positive association between maternal verbal scaffolding and Verbal IQ in preschoolers born very low birth weight, a group at biological risk. The Discussion (§4; page unavailable) says this association appears driven by girls. The study supports a link with cognitive skills, but its correlational findings do not establish that scaffolding promotes those skills; the proposed protection of brain development is the citing authors’ inference, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

May combine two claims.

Neural plasticity leaves the brain vulnerable to poverty-related risk factors, which can cause lasting insult to the brain regions that support cognitive skills.

“However, neural plasticity also leaves the brain vulnerable to poverty-related risk factors, which can cause lasting insult to the brain regions that support cognitive skills (Johnson, Riis, and Noble 2016).”

• cites Johnson, Riis, and Noble 2016 sourcePartly supported

  The Brain Structure and Function section says that regions supporting language, literacy, and executive functions may be particularly vulnerable to poverty-related factors. The discussion of plasticity also describes heightened sensitivity to environmental stimuli during brain development. But the Limitations of Current Literature section says evidence about poverty’s long-term effects on brain development is sparse; the review does not establish the claimed lasting insult or causal certainty. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Home stimulation quality can show variability even within high-adversity contexts, and it has been shown to be amenable to interventions in LMIC.

“Although home stimulation quality is necessarily related to the parent's socioeconomic status, given that it reflects resources and parental investment, this construct can show variability even within high-adversity contexts, and it has been shown to be amenable to interventions in LMIC (Jeong, Pitchik, and Fink 2021).”

• cites Jeong, Pitchik, and Fink 2021 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Absolute gamma power was related to higher VIQ more strongly for girls, whereas performance IQ was not related to absolute gamma for either gender.

“Interestingly, absolute gamma power was related to higher VIQ more strongly for girls, whereas performance IQ was not related to absolute gamma for either gender.”

• cites Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn 2017 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In LMIC contexts, EEG has been used successfully to study brain development in impoverished environments.

“In LMIC contexts, EEG has been used successfully to study brain development in impoverished environments (Jensen, Kumar, andXie 2019, 2021;Xie, Jensen, and Wade 2019).”

• cites Jensen, Kumar, and Xie 2019 sourceSupported
• cites Jensen, Kumar, and Xie 2021 sourceSupported
• cites Xie, Jensen, and Wade 2019 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Higher absolute gamma power was related to better executive functions for the whole sample.

“Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn (2017) showed that higher absolute gamma power, a frequency band associated with higher order cognitive processes, was related to better executive functions for the whole sample.”

• cites Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn 2017 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Absolute gamma power consists of high-frequency oscillations that may reflect synchronization of neuronal firing, which support the development of efficient neural networks and thus facilitate cognitive function.

“Absolute gamma power consists of high-frequency oscillations that may reflect synchronization of neuronal firing, which support the development of efficient neural networks (Uhlhaas et al. 2010) and thus facilitate cognitive function (Gou, Choudhury, and Benasich 2011).”

• cites Uhlhaas et al. 2010 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Gou, Choudhury, and Benasich 2011 sourcePartly supported

  The Introduction and literature review reports that higher gamma activity is generally associated with better task performance, and the Discussion (§4.1) links gamma activity to cognitive functions. Those passages support an association, but they do not establish the causal claim that gamma power facilitates cognitive function; the Discussion describes the proposed mechanism as a possibility. (LLM, conf=0.80)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The EFs composite included scores for children who passed comprehension criteria for three or more tasks, in line with research showing a three-task battery is acceptable.

“the EFs composite included scores for children who passed comprehension criteria for three or more tasks (93% of children in the current sample, M = 5.36 tasks, SD = 1.05).”

• cites Willoughby, Pek, and Blair 2013 sourceSupported

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The number of artifact-free epochs and intervention status were not included as covariates because they had no relation to absolute gamma.

“we did not include the number of artifact-free epochs or intervention status in the PEDS trial, given that these variables had no relation to absolute gamma.”

• cites Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn 2017 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Prior literature suggests it is advisable to test a mediation model even without a direct effect from the predictor to the outcome.

“prior literature suggesting that it is advisable to test a mediation model even without a direct effect from the predictor to the outcome (O'Rourke and MacKinnon 2018)”

• cites O'Rourke and MacKinnon 2018 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

In a different infant sample, maternal physiological stress was negatively associated with relative gamma while showing no association with absolute gamma.

“in a different infant sample, maternal physiological stress was negatively associated with relative gamma while showing no association with absolute gamma (Troller-Renfree, Brito, and Desai 2020).”

• cites Troller-Renfree, Brito, and Desai 2020 sourcePartly supported

  The Results section reports that higher maternal hair cortisol was significantly associated with lower infant relative high-gamma power. The Methods section says absolute-power results are in Supporting Information S2, but no passage in our copy reports whether maternal physiological stress was associated with absolute gamma power. That part of the claim is therefore unsupported by the available text. (LLM, conf=0.86)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Among preschool children in HIC born with very low birth weight, preschool girls benefited the most from high-quality maternal scaffolding.

“Among preschool children in HIC who were born with very low birth weight, preschool girls benefited the most from high-quality maternal scaffolding (Lowe et al. 2014).”

• cites Lowe et al. 2014 sourcePartly supported

  The Results (§3.3; page unavailable) report a positive association between maternal verbal scaffolding and verbal IQ for girls born very low birth weight. But the gender-by-scaffolding interaction was not statistically significant, and the observational association does not establish that girls benefited more than boys from scaffolding. (LLM, conf=0.88)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In infants, maternal perceived stress has been negatively associated with absolute gamma while showing no association with relative gamma.

“in infants, maternal perceived stress has been negatively associated with absolute gamma while showing no association with relative gamma (Pierce, Thompson, and Gharib 2019).”

• cites Pierce, Thompson, and Gharib 2019 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Higher absolute gamma power reflects more efficient neural processing, which can facilitate the emergence of complex cognitive skills.

“Higher absolute gamma power reflects more efficient neural processing, which can facilitate the emergence of complex cognitive skills (Benasich et al. 2008;Zelazo, Müller, and Frye 2003).”

• cites Benasich et al. 2008 sourcePartly supported

  The Discussion reports that higher resting frontal gamma power was associated with cognitive and language skills in children aged 16–36 months, and proposes that high-frequency activity might be necessary for optimal development. The Introduction links gamma activity to neural synchronization, but the paper does not establish that higher absolute gamma power reflects more efficient neural processing or that it facilitates complex skills as a causal finding. (LLM, conf=0.85)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
• cites Zelazo, Müller, and Frye 2003Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

A previous study with the current subsample showed that higher absolute gamma was related to higher EF and VIQ, with the association between gamma and VIQ being stronger for girls.

“a previous study with the current subsample showed that higher absolute gamma was related to higher EF and VIQ, with the association between gamma and VIQ being stronger for girls (Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn 2017).”

• cites Tarullo, Obradović, and Keehn 2017 sourceSupported

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Parent practices like expanding on children's speech and maintaining interest in the book have been related to higher regional brain activation while reading a story, specifically activation in left frontal and temporal areas, which support expressive and complex language.

“Parent practices like expanding on their children's speech and maintaining their interest in the book have been related to higher regional brain activation while reading a story, specifically, activation in left frontal and temporal areas, which support expressive and complex language (Hutton, Phelan, and Horowitz-Kraus 2017)”

• cites Hutton, Phelan, and Horowitz-Kraus 2017 sourcePartly supported

  The Methods describe expanding on a child’s response and building interest in the book as components of the maternal reading-quality score. The Results report that higher scores correlated with greater activation in left-sided brain regions, including frontal and temporal areas. The study measured activation while children listened to stories, not while they read with a parent, and did not establish separate associations for the two practices named in the claim. (LLM, conf=0.87)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Previous studies examining the association of environmental factors to both absolute and relative power often report findings that are not in alignment between the two power metrics.

“It is worth noting that previous studies examining the association of environmental factors to both absolute and relative power often report findings that are not in alignment between the two power metrics (Clarke et al. 2001;Obradović et al. 2016;Pierce, Thompson, and Gharib 2019;Somsen et al. 1997;Troller-Renfree, Brito, and Desai 2020).”

• cites Clarke et al. 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Obradović et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Pierce, Thompson, and Gharib 2019 sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

Our study found that the negative association between wealth and gamma was present for relative, but not absolute, gamma power, whereas Jensen et al. (2021) found it for absolute, but not relative, gamma power.

“Interestingly, although our study found that this negative association was present for relative, but not absolute, gamma power, Jensen et al. (2021) found it for absolute, but not relative, gamma power.”

• cites Jensen et al. (2021) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

In HIC contexts, lower socioeconomic status is related to lower gamma power, which is considered a less mature profile of neural functioning, given the developmental pattern shown in HIC contexts whereby gamma power increases with age.

“This pattern stands in contrast with findings in HIC contexts, where lower socioeconomic status is related to lower gamma power (Tomalski, Moore, and Ribeiro 2013), which is considered a less mature profile of neural functioning, given the developmental pattern shown in HIC contexts whereby gamma power increases with age (Saby and Marshall 2012).”

• cites Tomalski, Moore, and Ribeiro 2013 sourceSupported
• cites Saby and Marshall 2012 sourcePartly supported

  The “Gamma Rhythms” section reports that a visual stimulus evoked increased gamma-band power in 8-month-olds but not 6-month-olds, consistent with a developmental change in that specific response. It does not establish that gamma power generally increases with age or that lower gamma power is, by itself, a less mature neural profile. The socioeconomic-status finding is attributed to a different citation in the citing sentence. (LLM, conf=0.84)

  Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In a study with 3-year-old children living in urban slums in Bangladesh, Jensen et al. (2021) observed a negative association between wealth and gamma activity.

“It is worth noting that, in a study with 3-year-old children living in urban slums in Bangladesh, Jensen et al. (2021) also observed a negative association between wealth and gamma activity.”

• cites Jensen et al. (2021) sourceSupported

May combine two claims.

There were no main effects of maternal scaffolding or home stimulation quality on absolute gamma power.

“There were no main effects of maternal scaffolding or home stimulation quality on absolute gamma.”

May combine two claims.

Maternal scaffolding had a direct effect on absolute gamma (B = 0.048, p = 0.042), which was qualified by an interaction with gender (B = -0.074, p = 0.035).

“maternal scaffolding had a direct effect on absolute gamma (B = 0.048, p = 0.042, CI [0.002, 0.093]), which was qualified by an interaction with gender (B = -0.074,p = 0.035, CI [-0.143, -0.005]).”

May combine two claims.

Higher maternal scaffolding predicted higher overall absolute gamma more strongly for girls (B = 0.048, p = 0.042) but not for boys (B = -0.027, p = 0.395).

“Conditional effects showed that higher maternal scaffolding predicted higher overall absolute gamma more strongly for girls (B = 0.048, p = 0.042, CI [0.002, 0.093]) but not for boys (B = -0.027,p = 0.395, CI [-0.078, 0.025]).”

May combine two claims.

In the current subsample, maternal scaffolding at 24 months was correlated with VIQ at 48 months (r = 0.206, p = 0.040) but not with EFs (r = 0.048, p = 0.627).

“in the current subsample, while maternal scaffolding was correlated with VIQ (r = 0.206, p = 0.040), it was not correlated with EFs (r = 0.048, p = 0.627).”

May combine two claims.

Absolute gamma and EF were positively correlated for the top and medium terciles of maternal scaffolding (r = 0.399, p = 0.026 and r = 0.369, p = 0.024, respectively), but not for the bottom tercile (r = -0.005, p = 0.975).

“absolute gamma and EF were positively correlated for the top and medium terciles of maternal scaffolding (r = 0.399, p = 0.026 and r = 0.369, p = 0.024, respectively), but not for the bottom tercile (r = -0.005,p = 0.975).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The number of EF tasks completed was a significant predictor of EF (B = 0.167, p = 0.001).

“the covariate of the number of EF tasks also emerged as a significant predictor of EF in this model (B = 0.167, p = 0.001, CI [0.072, 0.262]).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

There was a modest but significant correlation between home stimulation quality at 18 months and maternal scaffolding at 24 months (r = 0.213, p = 0.029).

“there was a modest but significant correlation between home stimulation quality and maternal scaffolding (r = 0.213, p = 0.029).”

May combine two claims.

In the current study, early maternal scaffolding predicts gamma power during a resting state, while children's brains are not actively engaged in a cognitive task.

“In the current study, we found that early maternal scaffolding predicts gamma power during a resting state, that is, while children's brains are not actively engaged in a cognitive task.”

May combine two claims.

These family experiences were modestly correlated in our sample, suggesting that although their overlap is significant, it does not account for most of the variance of each measure.

“These family experiences were modestly correlated in our sample, suggesting that although their overlap is significant, it does not account for most of the variance of each measure.”

May combine two claims.

Lower family wealth was associated with higher relative gamma power while showing no association with absolute gamma.

“Conversely, lower family wealth was associated with higher relative gamma power while showing no association with absolute gamma.”

May combine two claims.

In the current study, although maternal scaffolding interacted with gender in predicting absolute gamma, this interaction was absent for relative gamma.

“In the current study, although maternal scaffolding interacted with gender in predicting absolute gamma, this interaction was absent for relative gamma.”

May combine two claims.

The current study found no relation between high-frequency neural activity and home stimulation quality, only with maternal scaffolding.

“The current study found no relation between high-frequency neural activity and home stimulation quality, only with maternal scaffolding.”

May combine two claims.

An exploratory model without covariates showed a moderated mediation effect, where gamma power partially mediated the relation of maternal scaffolding to VIQ only for girls.

“An exploratory model without covariates showed a moderated mediation effect, where gamma power partially mediated the relation of maternal scaffolding to VIQ only for girls.”

May combine two claims.

Although we found a pathway from maternal scaffolding to gamma power moderated by gender and a pathway from gamma power to VIQ, we found no moderated mediation when including covariates in the model.

“Although we found a pathway from maternal scaffolding to gamma power moderated by gender and a pathway from gamma power to VIQ, we found no moderated mediation when including covariates in the model.”

May combine two claims.

Children invited for EEG assessments did not differ from the rest of the sample on demographic variables or EFs, although they did have slightly higher VIQ at 48 months.

“Children invited for EEG assessments did not differ from the rest of the sample on demographic variables or EFs, although they did have slightly higher VIQ at 48 months (t(1238) = 2.38, p = 0.03).”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The protective role of early maternal scaffolding in contexts of social and biological risk in HIC suggests that it might also be effective in protecting cognitive skills from broader adversity in some LMIC contexts.

“The protective role of early maternal scaffolding in contexts of social and biological risk in HIC suggests that it might also be effective in protecting cognitive skills from broader adversity in some LMIC contexts.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

The cultural adaptation process included reviewing and adapting task items by local and international experts, translation and backtranslation following gold-standard guidelines, and multiple rounds of field and pilot testing.

“This process included reviewing and adapting task items by a team of local and international experts to ensure familiarity while preserving validity; translation and backtranslation of instruments following gold-standard guidelines (Abubakar et al. 2013); as well as multiple rounds of field and pilot testing (for more details, see : Obradović et al. 2019;Rasheed et al. 2018;Rasheed and Yousafzai 2”

• cites Abubakar et al. 2013Not checked — no full text of the source
• cites Obradović et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rasheed et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Home stimulation quality may facilitate later cognitive skills by supporting underlying neurodevelopmental processes.

“Home stimulation quality may facilitate later cognitive skills by supporting underlying neurodevelopmental processes.”

May combine two claims.

Female infants who experience risk factors such as malnutrition, iron deficiency, and exposure to toxins may be less neurodevelopmentally vulnerable than males, thus allowing them to capitalize on family protective factors like maternal scaffolding.

“This sex-related difference might also extend to biological risks in impoverished LMIC contexts: Female infants who experience risk factors, such as malnutrition, iron deficiency, and exposure to toxins, may be less neurodevelopmentally vulnerable than males, thus allowing them to capitalize on family protective factors like maternal scaffolding.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The association between family experiences and neural activity remains largely unexplored in LMIC contexts.

“However, the association between family experiences and neural activity remains largely unexplored in LMIC contexts.”

May combine two claims.

The persistence of this link suggests a pathway where early family experiences protect brain development from wider adversity, which in turn has long-lasting benefits for cognitive skills.

“The persistence of this link suggests a pathway where early family experiences protect brain development from wider adversity, which in turn has longlasting benefits for cognitive skills.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Home stimulation quality and maternal scaffolding are two early family experiences previously linked to cognitive skills that might be associated with brain development in LMIC.

“Home stimulation quality and maternal scaffolding are two early family experiences previously linked to cognitive skills that might be associated with brain development in LMIC.”

• cites Obradović et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Aboud and Akhter 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The relation between early home stimulation quality and brain development may emerge around preschool age.

“Given that links between home stimulation quality and cognitive skills seem to become salient after toddlerhood, the relation between early home stimulation quality and brain development may similarly emerge around preschool age.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

The assessment team was extensively trained in building rapport with families, understanding the evaluation constructs, administering measures, and dealing with assessment barriers.

“The assessment team was extensively trained in building rapport with families, understanding the evaluation constructs, administering measures, and dealing with assessment barriers.”

May combine two claims.

When resources are scarce, parents may prioritize investing in learning opportunities for boys over girls, as illustrated by girls remaining out of school at higher rates than boys in many LMIC contexts.

“When resources are scarce, parents may prioritize investing in learning opportunities for boys over girls, as illustrated by the fact that girls remain out of school at higher rates than boys in many LMIC contexts (UNICEF 2015).”

• cites UNICEF 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

In LMIC contexts, absolute gamma power is a promising index of neural functioning linked to cognitive skills and may be linked to environmental experiences differentially by gender.

“In sum, in LMIC contexts, absolute gamma power is a promising index of neural functioning linked to cognitive skills and may be linked to environmental experiences differentially by gender.”

May combine two claims.

The quality and diversity of early family experiences may vary between genders, resulting in gender differences in the relation of home stimulation quality and maternal scaffolding to patterns of brain activity and cognitive development.

“Thus, the quality and diversity of early family experiences may vary between genders, resulting in gender differences in the relation of home stimulation quality and maternal scaffolding to patterns of brain activity and cognitive development (UNICEF 2015).”

• cites UNICEF 2015Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

May combine two claims.

The PEDS trial setting, the Naushahro Feroze District in Sindh Province, Pakistan, is a predominantly agricultural, under-resourced district that faces disadvantages present in many other adverse LMIC contexts.

“In that sense, the PEDS trial (Yousafzai et al. 2014) offers a valuable opportunity to examine the protective role of family experiences from wider adversity, given that its setting, the Naushahro Feroze District in Sindh Province, Pakistan, is a predominantly agricultural, under-resourced district that faces disadvantages that are present in many other adverse LMIC contexts (Clark, Coll-Seck, and”

• cites Clark, Coll-Seck, and Banerjee 2020 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites UNICEF 2012aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Girls may depend more heavily on the cognitive stimulation their mothers can provide at home, which could play a compensatory role in their cognitive development.

“At the same time, girls may depend more heavily on the cognitive stimulation their mothers can provide at home, which could play a compensatory role in their cognitive development.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The VIQ composite had internal consistency reliability Cronbach's α = 0.88 in the current subsample.

“Cronbach's α = 0.88 for the current subsample”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Social factors may position children perceived as boys to receive the best quality of family experiences in societies with high gender disparity.

“In contrast, social factors may position children perceived as boys to receive the best quality of family experiences in societies with high gender disparity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

The relation of family experiences to brain development and cognitive skills may vary as a function of the child's gender due to both biological and social factors.

“The relation of family experiences to brain development and cognitive skills may vary as a function of the child's gender due to both biological and social factors.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

An extensive process of task selection, adaptation, and evaluation was completed to arrive at six EF tasks judged to be developmentally and culturally appropriate.

“an extensive process of task selection, adaptation, and evaluation was completed to arrive at six tasks judged to be developmentally and culturally appropriate”

• cites Obradović et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Gender bias may result in boys having more access to learning resources and better interaction quality at school and with family members.

“Gender bias may result in boys having more access to learning resources and better interaction quality at school and with family members.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The WPPSI-III underwent extensive cultural adaptation, with unfamiliar items replaced with culturally relevant examples while maintaining the same category and level of difficulty.

“the WPPSI-III went through extensive cultural adaptation.For instance, unfamiliar items were replaced with culturally relevant examples while maintaining the same category and level of difficulty”

• cites Rasheed et al. 2017Not matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

In impoverished areas of LMIC, high-quality early caregiving may buffer the brain from adversity, which in turn may protect the development of cognitive skills.

“In impoverished areas of LMIC, high-quality early caregiving may buffer the brain from adversity, which in turn may protect the development of cognitive skills in LMIC.”

May combine two claims.

Mothers high in maternal scaffolding may provide compensatory stimulation for their girls, and mothers may play a buffering role from broader adversities and gender inequalities at this age.

“Given that mothers in our sample spend most of the day with their young children, mothers high in maternal scaffolding may provide compensatory stimulation for their girls; thus, mothers may play a buffering role from broader adversities and gender inequalities at this age.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Mothers in our sample spend most of the day with their young children.

May combine two claims.

In the larger PEDS sample (n = 1302), maternal scaffolding at 24 months was correlated with both child VIQ (r = 0.24, p < 0.001) and EFs (r = 0.20, p < 0.001) at 48 months.

“in the larger sample (n = 1302), maternal scaffolding at 24 months was correlated with both child VIQ (r = 0.24, p < 0.001) and EFs (r = 0.20, p < 0.001) at 48 months.”

• cites Obradović et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Mothers who spend time scaffolding their daughters might also prioritize them in other ways, such as investing time in their daughters, prioritizing their health and nutrition, and exposing them to learning opportunities.

“Thus, mothers who spend time scaffolding their daughters might also prioritize them in other ways, such as investing time in their daughters, prioritizing their health and nutrition, and exposing them to learning opportunities.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Measures of global child health, family socioeconomic status, and EEG data quality were included as covariates in all models.

“We included measures of global child health, family socioeconomic status, and EEG data quality as covariates in all models.”

May combine two claims.

In Pakistan, patriarchal structures are entrenched in social, cultural, and religious systems, resulting in girls being more likely to experience domestic violence and remain out of school, as well as being at risk of being forced into bonded labor or exchanged for debt settlement.

“In Pakistan, patriarchal structures are entrenched in social, cultural, and religious systems, resulting in girls being more likely to experience domestic violence and remain out of school, as well as being at risk of being forced into bonded labor or exchanged for debt settlement (UNICEF 2018a).”

• cites UNICEF 2018aNot matched

  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Absolute and relative power are distinct metrics: absolute power reflects the level of neural activity within each specific frequency band, while relative power is an index of the distribution of spectral power.

“Absolute power reflects the level of neural activity within each specific frequency band, while relative power is an index of the distribution of spectral power (Clarke et al. 2001;Somsen et al. 1997).”

• cites Clarke et al. 2001 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Somsen et al. 1997 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

May combine two claims.

Of 219 children who underwent EEG assessments, 4 had no data, 38 had excessive bad channels, and 72 had insufficient epochs, resulting in a final sample of 105 children.

“Of the 219 children who underwent EEG assessments, 4 had no data, 38 had excessive bad channels, and 72 had insufficient epochs, resulting in a final sample of 105 children”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

Mothers with high scaffolding scores in our sample could stand in contrast to the general pattern of underinvestment in girls.

“Mothers with high scaffolding scores in our sample could stand in contrast to this general pattern of underinvestment in girls.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Maternal scaffolding may reflect maternal prioritizing of girls' thinking and competence, showing faith in their cognitive potential.

“Maternal scaffolding may reflect maternal prioritizing of girls' thinking and competence, showing faith in their cognitive potential.”

May combine two claims.

Boys may receive cognitive stimulation from other family members, such as older siblings, that can be beneficial for the development of their cognitive skills while being detrimental for girls.

“For example, boys may receive cognitive stimulation from other family members, such as older siblings, that can be beneficial for the development of their cognitive skills while being detrimental for girls (Rathore et al. 2023).”

• cites Rathore et al. 2023 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The number of EF tasks completed was included as a covariate in all analyses involving the EF composite score.

“we include the number of EF tasks completed as a covariate in all analyses involving the EF composite score.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In some LMIC contexts, parents are more likely to send their sons to school than their daughters.

“and more likely to send their sons to school than their daughters (Pasqua 2005).”

• cites Pasqua 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Relative power is less influenced than absolute power by anatomical factors like skull thickness.

“relative power is less influenced than absolute power by anatomical factors like skull thickness (Benninger, Matthis, and Scheffner 1984).”

• cites Benninger, Matthis, and Scheffner 1984 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

To be included in EEG analyses, children needed less than 15% bad channels and at least 45 epochs of artifact-free data.

“To be included in the present analyses, children needed less than 15% bad channels (i.e., fewer than ten bad channels) and at least 45 epochs of artifact-free data out of a possible 240 epochs.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

It is possible that high levels of maternal scaffolding are a proxy for mothers' broader investments in their daughters.

“Even further, it is possible that high levels of maternal scaffolding, in truth, are a proxy for mothers' broader investments in their daughters.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

In some LMIC contexts, parents are more likely to seek medical care for a sick son than for a sick daughter.

“For example, in some LMIC contexts, parents are more likely to seek medical care for a sick son than for a sick daughter (Ramakrishnan, Khera, and Jain 2011)”

• cites Ramakrishnan, Khera, and Jain 2011 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Among Latina mothers, a stronger storyteller role is linked to better literacy scores for their children.

“and among Latina mothers, a stronger storyteller role is linked to better literacy scores for their children (Caspe 2009;Melzi and Caspe 2005).”

• cites Caspe 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Melzi and Caspe 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

In LMIC contexts, fathers typically spend less time caregiving but usually engage in stimulation activities with their children.

“Although in LMIC contexts, fathers typically spend less time caregiving, they usually engage in stimulation activities with their children (Jeong et al. 2016;Yousafzai et al. 2015).”

• cites Jeong et al. 2016 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Yousafzai et al. 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The magnitude and severity of material scarcity present in a disadvantaged LMIC context are difficult to compare to the experiences associated with having a low socioeconomic status in a HIC context.

“The magnitude and severity of the material scarcity present in a disadvantaged LMIC context are difficult to compare to the experiences associated with having a low socioeconomic status in a HIC context.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Findings for both samples are localized to specific ages and LMIC contexts and should be interpreted within the particularities of each environment.

“Here, it is critical to highlight that findings for both samples are localized to specific ages and LMIC contexts; as such, they should be interpreted within the particularities of each environment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

For mothers in our sample with low literacy levels, using wordless picture books may have allowed them to feel comfortable taking an expert role in supporting and guiding their children through the story.

“For mothers in our sample with low literacy levels, using wordless picture books may have allowed them to feel comfortable taking an expert role in supporting and guiding their children through the story.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

Our measures of gamma power and VIQ were concurrent; it is possible that the mediating role of gamma power may only emerge for cognitive outcomes at a later point.

“Finally, our measures of gamma power and VIQ were concurrent; it is possible that the mediating role of gamma power may only emerge for cognitive outcomes at a later point.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Children who often learn by observing and pitching in can pay attention to multiple things at once and learn equally well from observing than from being taught.

“Children who often learn by observing and pitching in can pay attention to multiple things at once and learn equally well from observing than from being taught (Silva, Shimpi, and Rogoff 2015)”

• cites Silva, Shimpi, and Rogoff 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

It is possible that the conjunction of specific environmental factors leads to different patterns of brain development or that the timing of environment-brain relations is context-dependent.

“It is possible that the conjunction of specific envi-ronmental factors leads to different patterns of brain development or that the timing of environment-brain relations is contextdependent.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Children in both LMIC and HIC contexts likely experience both the traditional, didactic style and the participatory style of scaffolding.

“Importantly, children in both LMIC and HIC contexts likely experience both the traditional, didactic style and the”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

This participatory style might also support the development of cognitive skills, perhaps by supporting neurodevelopment.

“suggesting that this style might also support the development of cognitive skills, perhaps by supporting neurodevelopment.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Differences between and within cultures can shape how guidance and support are delivered, which in turn can have differential effects on children's outcomes.

“Interestingly, differences between and within cultures can shape how guidance and support are delivered, which in turn can have differential effects on children's outcomes.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Differences between and within cultures can shape how guidance and support are delivered, which in turn can have differential effects on children's outcomes.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Due to the live nature of the maternal scaffolding coding scheme, we could not capture the specific cultural and linguistic nuances of their interaction styles.

“Second, due to the live nature of the maternal scaffolding coding scheme, we could not capture the specific cultural and linguistic nuances of their interaction styles.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

A different scaffolding style, labeled learning by observing and pitching in, has been described in some LMIC contexts.

“However, a different scaffolding style, labeled learning by observing and pitching in, has been described in some LMIC contexts (Rogoff et al. 1993).”

• cites Rogoff et al. 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

We did not include fathers in our sample.

“Fourth, we did not include fathers in our sample.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The association of home stimulation quality with high-frequency neural activity could similarly only become evident around age 5.

“which could similarly be the case with high-frequency neural activity.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

This style of scaffolding has been linked to cognitive outcomes.

“Indeed, this style of scaffolding has been linked to cognitive outcomes.”

• cites Silva, Shimpi, and Rogoff 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

When compared to European American mothers, Latina mothers in the United States tend to de-emphasize asking children direct questions and take on a lead storyteller role.

“For example, when compared to European American mothers, Latina mothers in the United States tend to de-emphasize asking children direct questions and take on a lead storyteller role”

• cites Caspe 2009 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Melzi and Caspe 2005 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Parent practices like expanding on children's speech and maintaining interest in the book have been related to better vocabulary in diverse settings from HIC.

“and to better vocabulary in diverse settings from HIC (Mol et al. 2008).”

• cites Mol et al. 2008 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Paternal caregiving practices can impact children's neural and cognitive outcomes, especially for girls in patriarchal societies, where men have more control over resources.

“Paternal caregiving practices can impact children's neural and cognitive outcomes, especially for girls in patriarchal societies, where men have more control over resources.”

• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Paternal caregiving practices can impact children's neural and cognitive outcomes, especially for girls in patriarchal societies, where men have more control over resources.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

We did not investigate whether other, less Westernized styles of scaffolding could be occurring in our sample, such as the participatory style of learning by observing and pitching in.

“However, we did not investigate whether other, less Westernized styles of scaffolding could be occurring in our sample, such as this participatory style of learning by observing and pitching in (Rogoff 2014;Rogoff et al. 1993).”

• cites Rogoff 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rogoff et al. 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Recording parent-child interactions in LMIC can be particularly challenging due to factors such as cultural values of privacy, low resources, or unreliable electricity.

“Recording parent-child interactions in LMIC can be particularly challenging due to factors such as cultural values of privacy, low resources, or unreliable electricity (Rasheed and Yousafzai 2015).”

• cites Rasheed and Yousafzai 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

In small-scale Indigenous communities of the Americas with low access to schooling, mothers teach their children by guiding their observations and giving feedback without praise.

“In small-scale Indigenous communities of the Americas with low access to schooling, mothers teach their children by guiding their observations and giving feedback without praise (Rogoff 2014;Rogoff et al. 1993).”

• cites Rogoff 2014 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rogoff et al. 1993 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The maternal scaffolding measure in the current study follows a traditional, didactic understanding of the construct, where mothers with the highest scores encourage their children to take a leading role in the interaction and maintain the child's interest through praise.

“The maternal scaffolding measure in the current study follows a traditional, didactic understanding of the construct, where mothers with the highest scores encourage their children to take a leading role in the interaction and maintain the child's interest through praise (Landry et al. 2002).”

• cites Landry et al. 2002 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The absence of moderated mediation when controlling for covariates could reflect a lack of power to detect this relation due to our small sample size.

“First, the absence of moderated mediation when controlling for covariates could reflect a lack of power to detect this relation due to our small sample size.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The differences between contexts likely lie in how often children are exposed to each style.

“The differences between contexts likely lie in how often children are exposed to each style.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

The specific, controlled nature of maternal scaffolding assessments could facilitate the identification of mechanistic associations that might be obscured by the global and multidimensional nature of home stimulation quality.

“The specific, controlled nature of maternal scaffolding assessments could facilitate the identification of mechanistic associations that might be obscured by the global and multidimensional nature of home stimulation quality.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Wordless picture books may facilitate scaffolding behaviors for mothers with little formal education.

“Further, wordless picture books may facilitate scaffolding behaviors for mothers with little formal education.”

• cites Chaparro-Moreno, Reali, and Maldonado-Carreño 2017 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Scaffolding may look different in some LMIC contexts, depending on factors such as cultural values and the prevalence of schooling.

“Despite the benefits of using a wordless picture book to measure maternal scaffolding, it is necessary to acknowledge that scaffolding may look different in some LMIC contexts, depending on factors such as cultural values and the prevalence of schooling.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The strength of our study is the rigorous adaptation and validation of cognitive skill measures specifically for our sample.

“The strength of our study is the rigorous adaptation and validation of cognitive skill measures specifically for our sample (Obradović et al. 2019;Rasheed et al. 2018;Rasheed and Yousafzai 2015).”

• cites Obradović et al. 2019 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rasheed et al. 2018 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source
• cites Rasheed and Yousafzai 2015 sourceNot checked — no full text of the source

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing).

It is possible that other indices of neural activity not measured in the current study, such as functional connectivity, may further contribute to explaining the pathways between maternal scaffolding and cognitive outcomes.

“Second, it is possible that other indices of neural activity not measured in the current study, such as functional connectivity, may further contribute to explaining the pathways between maternal scaffolding and cognitive outcomes.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A participatory scaffolding style may similarly protect brain development from larger contexts of adversity.

“A participatory scaffolding style may similarly protect brain development from larger contexts of adversity.”