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Cited by 2Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances researchToxic Organic Pollutants ImpactEnvironmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances in aquatic sediments: Global distribution, partitioning behavior, and ecological consequences

Open access
Ehsan, Mohammad Nazmul·2026·Journal of Environmental Quality
DOI 10.1002/jeq2.70148
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Abstract

Per‐ and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants that accumulate across aquatic compartments, which include sediments, pore water, surface water (including microlayers), suspended particulate matter (SPM), fish, and other biota, causing long‐term ecological impacts. This review analyzes the global distribution of PFAS in aquatic sediments, partitioning behavior across aquatic compartments, and ecological consequences of PFAS on sediment‐dwelling organisms. PFAS in sediments are widespread globally, with the highest mean concentration (274.1 ng/g) found in the African continent, in addition to localized hotspots showing increased average levels in other continents. SPM consistently retains higher PFAS levels than sediments, while porewater concentrations exceed those of surface water (SPM > sediment, porewater > surface water), revealing overlooked exposure pathways. Sediment‐bound PFAS exposes benthic organisms through dermal contact, ingestion, and trophic transfer, with bioaccumulation influenced by organism traits, sediment properties, and environmental factors. Although ecological risk quotient (RQ) values are generally low (RQ < 0.1), localized hotspots and species‐specific sensitivities highlight the need for site‐specific monitoring. Regulatory frameworks in the EU and United States remain focused on drinking and surface waters, lacking sediment‐specific standards and leaving a critical policy gap. Thus, this review suggests sediments as an important yet underexplored reservoir of PFAS, indicating the importance of incorporating sediment compartments into monitoring, ecological risk assessment, and regulatory frameworks.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1002/jeq2.70148

Cites

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Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

0 of 197 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingcitation

    PFAS concentrations in porewater exceed those in surface water.

    “porewater concentrations exceed those of surface water”
    • Also stated in: § 3.2 Distribution of PFAS between porewater and surface water · boosted
      “Across aquatic systems, PFAS concentrations in porewater consistently exceed those in surface water”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation

    PFAS contamination in aquatic sediments is globally widespread.

    “PFAS in sediments are widespread globally, with the highest mean concentration (274.1 ng/g) found in the African continent, in addition to localized hotspots showing increased average levels in other continents.”
    • Also stated in: § INTRODUCTION · plain
      “PFAS are frequently identified in sediments across diverse aquatic systems, from the Great Lakes to the Red Sea, usually at ng/g levels”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    Ecological risk quotient values for PFAS in sediments are generally low, below 0.1.

    “Although ecological risk quotient (RQ) values are generally low (RQ < 0.1)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The number of PFAS targeted and detected in sediment studies varies from 1 to 93 compounds.

    “Among these studies, the total number of PFAS targeted and detected varied considerably, ranging from 1 to 93 compounds.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingnone given

    The Roodeplaat and Hartbeespoort Dams in South Africa show the highest average PFAS concentration of 274.1 ng/g.

    “with the Roodeplaat and Hartbeespoort Dams in South Africa showing the highest average of 274.1 ng/g.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 102
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 12
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Among 12 African studies, the Volta River in Ghana, Nairobi River in Kenya, and Apies River in South Africa reported the highest mean concentrations of 101, 40.48, and 31.35 ng/g, respectively.

    “Among 12 studies found on this continent, the Volta River in Ghana, the Nairobi River in Kenya, and the Apies River in South Africa reported the highest mean concentrations of 101, 40.48, and 31.35ng/g, respectively”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Chirikona et al., 2022

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    • cites Okwuosa, Nomngongo, Petrik, et al., 2025

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    • cites L. Zhao et al., 2025

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Regulatory frameworks in the EU and United States focus on drinking and surface waters and lack sediment-specific standards.

    “Regulatory frameworks in the EU and United States remain focused on drinking and surface waters, lacking sediment-specific standards and leaving a critical policy gap.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingreasoning

    Localized hotspots and species-specific sensitivities exist for PFAS ecological risk.

    “localized hotspots and species-specific sensitivities highlight the need for site-specific monitoring.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    In the Bohai and Yellow Seas, porewater PFAS ranged from 150.23 to 1838.48 ng/L (mean 636.8 ng/L), far above surface saltwater.

    “In the Bohai and Yellow Seas, porewater ranged from 150.23-1838.48ng/L (mean 636.8 ng/L), far above surface saltwater”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N.Shen et al., 2024

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Nevada's Las Vegas Wash shows the highest PFAS concentration in US sediments, likely due to urban runoff and treated wastewater.

    “with Nevada's Las Vegas Wash showing the highest concentration, likely due to urban runoff and treated wastewater”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bai & Son, 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Z. Wu, Li, et al. introduced PFOS into uncontaminated sediments (600 ng/g dw) and equilibrated them with overlying aerated water for two weeks, detecting porewater PFAS at 32,600 ng/L compared to surface water at 21,400 ng/L.

    “Z. Wu, Li, et al. (2021) introduced PFOS into uncontaminated sediments (600 ng/g dw) and equilibrated them with overlying aerated water (1:3 sediment-to-water ratio) for two weeks, detecting elevated PFAS concentrations in porewater (32,600 ng/L) compared to surface water (21,400 ng/L).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Z.Wu, Li, et al., 2021

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Except for the Chinese coastal area, other regions of Asia remain underexplored and indicate lower levels of PFAS contamination in certain areas.

    “Except for the Chinese coastal area, other regions of Asia remain underexplored as well as indicate lower levels of PFAS contamination in certain areas.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Shi et al. introduced a mixture of PFAS (100 μg/kg dw) into homogenized river sediments and observed porewater concentrations (1,397,080 ng/L) exceeding surface water (566,290 ng/L).

    “Shi et al. (2024) introduced a mixture of PFAS (100 μg/kg dw) into homogenized river sediments and observed porewater concentrations (1,397,080 ng/L) that exceeded those in surface water (566,290 ng/L).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shi et al., 2024

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    In Asia and Europe, mean PFAS concentrations in sediments ranged from 0.14 to 75 ng/g and 0.083 to 75.9 ng/g, respectively.

    “In Asia and Europe, the mean PFAS concentration ranged from 0.14 to 75 and 0.083 to 75.9 ng/g, respectively”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Total sediment PFAS concentrations in four rivers in the Pearl River Delta, Qiantang River-Hangzhou Bay, and Kaohsiung Harbor ranged from 0.025 to 150, 31 to 215, and 0.155 to 125 ng/g, respectively.

    “Total sediment PFAS concentrations in four rivers in the Pearl River Delta, Qiantang River-Hangzhou Bay in China, and Kaohsiung Harbor, Taiwan, ranged from 0.025 to 150, 31 to 215, and 0.155 to 125 ng/g, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Higher mean PFAS concentrations in Norway, the Netherlands, Spain, and France indicate extensive contamination in the EU, while other parts of Europe such as Russia remain underexplored.

    “A higher mean concentration was found in Norway, the Netherlands, Spain, and France in the EU, indicating extensive contamination, while other parts of Europe such as Russia remain underexplored.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Short-chain PFAS (C ≤ 7) predominate in porewater, while long-chain PFAS (C ≥ 8) sorb more strongly to sediments.

    “shortchain PFAS (C ≤ 7)-including PFCAs, PFSAs, hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) (C6), and Hsubstituted FTCAs-predominate in porewater, while longchain PFAS (C ≥ 8) such as PFOS, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) (C9), and 6:2 Cl-PFESA sorb more strongly to sediments”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Feng et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lyu et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    Ion-exchange resins, thermal treatment, and advanced oxidation are promising for PFAS sediment cleanup, but they still need validation and cheaper operation.

    “Other technologies such as ion-exchange resins, thermal treatments, and advanced oxidation showed promise but required further validation and cost optimization.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The EU and the United States have made regulatory advances for PFAS in drinking water and biota.

    “Policy progress has been achieved in drinking water and biota standards in the EU and United States; however, both jurisdictions lack sediment-specific EQS, leaving a critical regulatory gap that weakens long-term PFAS management.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given

    The EU and United States lack sediment-specific environmental quality standards (EQS) for PFAS.

    “Policy progress has been achieved in drinking water and biota standards in the EU and United States; however, both jurisdictions lack sediment-specific EQS, leaving a critical regulatory gap that weakens long-term PFAS management.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Findingnone given

    Activated carbon use in sediment remediation carries ecological trade-offs.

    “AC is the only fully commercialized in situ sorbent but carries ecological trade-offs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Griffin et al. targeted the highest number of PFAS (93) in Florida, and Munoz et al. detected the highest number (45) in Québec, Canada.

    “Griffin et al. (2023) targeted the highest number of PFAS (93) in Florida, while Munoz et al. (2025) detected the highest 45 compounds in Québec, Canada.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Griffin et al., 2023

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Munoz et al., 2025

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFAS uptake by macroinvertebrates can occur through sediment ingestion, consumption of contaminated prey or organic matter, and dissolved uptake through respiratory routes, resulting in bioaccumulation and trophic transfer.

    “PFAS uptake can occur through sediment ingestion during feeding, consumption of contaminated prey or organic matter, and dissolved uptake through respiratory routes (Lewis et al., 2023;Maruya et al., 2012;Prosser et al., 2016;Simpson et al., 2021), resulting in bioaccumulation and trophic transfer”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Lewis et al., 2023

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    • cites Maruya et al., 2012

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    • cites Prosser et al., 2016

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sediments are an important yet underexplored reservoir of PFAS.

    “this review suggests sediments as an important yet underexplored reservoir of PFAS”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Buck et al. identified 256 PFAS as commercially important worldwide.

    “Buck et al. (2021) identified 256 PFAS as commercially important worldwide.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Buck et al., 2021

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Combined sewer overflows can have total PFAS concentrations up to 320 ng/L, with a substantial fraction from precursor compounds and limited removal after chlorination.

    “These sewer overflows can have total PFAS concentrations of up to 320 ng/L, with a substantial fraction originating from precursor compounds and limited removal efficiency after chlorination treatment”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Butzlaff et al., 2025

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    Premisecitation

    Once deposited, PFAS can disrupt microbial activity, affect the carbon cycle, and provide long-term exposure to benthic and pelagic creatures via resuspension or pore water.

    “Once deposited, they can have an impact on aquatic ecosystems by disrupting microbial activity (Bezabhe et al., 2025;Qiao et al., 2018), affecting carbon cycle (Mah-moudnia, 2023), and providing long-term exposure to benthic and pelagic creatures via resuspension or pore water”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bezabhe et al., 2025

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    • cites Qiao et al., 2018

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    • cites Mah-moudnia, 2023

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Cumulative emissions of perfluoroalkyl acids reach at least 46,000 tonnes.

    “This production contributes to cumulative emissions of perfluoroalkyl acids reaching at least 46,000 tonnes (Evich et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Evich et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The patterns of higher PFAS in suspended particulate matter than sediment and in porewater than surface water reveal overlooked exposure pathways.

    “revealing overlooked exposure pathways”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFAS enter aquatic systems through point sources such as industrial discharges, aqueous film-forming foams, and wastewater treatment plant effluents, and through nonpoint sources such as land-applied biosolids, landfill and incinerator runoff, leaching from consumer products, atmospheric deposition, and precipitation.

    “PFAS enter aquatic systems through point sources, such as industrial discharges, aqueous film-forming foams (AFFF), and wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, as well as nonpoint sources such as land-applied biosolids, landfill and incinerator runoff, leaching from consumer products, atmospheric deposition, and precipitation”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Hunter Anderson et al., 2019

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    • cites P. Li, McGarr, et al., 2024

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    • cites Pfotenhauer et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    A significant portion of PFAS pollutants enters aquatic systems through atmospheric deposition, wastewater effluents, industrial discharge, and surface runoff, and subsequently accumulates in sediments.

    “A significant portion of these pollutants enter aquatic systems through atmospheric deposition, wastewater effluents come from industrial and household sources, industrial discharge, surface runoff, and subsequently accumulate in sediments”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Galloway et al., 2020

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    • cites X. Hu et al., 2016

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    • cites Pétré et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFAS exposure in benthic organisms is associated with reproductive and developmental toxicity, immunological suppression, increased disease susceptibility, and mortality.

    “The reported impacts have been observed across a wide range of benthic organisms, including worms, amphipods, insect larvae, snails, bivalves and bottom-feeding fish and include reproductive and developmental toxicity, immunological suppression, increased disease susceptibility, and mortality”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Jacobson et al., 2010

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    • cites Langberg et al., 2020

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    • cites Yun et al., 2023

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In some systems, no significant correlation between total organic carbon and PFAS sorption was observed, possibly due to low organic carbon content (e.g., fOC ∼0.47%), which may limit sorptive capacity.

    “In some systems, no significant correlation was observed, possibly due to low organic carbon content (e.g., f OC ∼ 0.47%), which may limit sorptive capacity”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites S.Wang et al., 2020

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Over 300 US military sites have been identified as PFAS hotspots due to decades of aqueous film-forming foam use, which also affects nearby groundwater and surface waters.

    “Notably, over 300 US military sites have been identified as PFAS hotspots due to decades of AFFF use, which also affects nearby groundwater and surface waters”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ruyle et al., 2023

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  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation

    In estuarine and marine settings, salinity strengthens PFAS sorption via salting-out and cation bridging, especially through Ca2+ and Mg2+.

    “In estuarine and marine settings, salinity strengthens sorption via”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Y.Chen et al., 2023

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    • cites Meng et al., 2021

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    • cites You et al., 2010

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Highly aromatic, humiclike, and low molecular weight DOM fractions predominate in water and likely facilitate PFAS migration into the aqueous phase via electrostatic and hydrogen-bond interactions.

    “They discovered that highly aromatic, humiclike, and low molecular weight DOM fractions predominated in water, likely facilitating the migration of PFAS into the aqueous phase via electrostatic and hydrogen-bond interactions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Xie et al., 2026

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sediment porewater, enriched in dissolved organic matter, functions as both a reservoir for pollutants and a primary exposure route for benthic organisms.

    “Sediment porewater, enriched in dissolved organic matter (DOM), functions as both a reservoir for pollutants and a primary exposure route for benthic organisms”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mao et al., 2018

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Industrial and wastewater discharge, mining activities, agricultural runoff, and electronic waste processing are potential contributors to PFAS in African sediments.

    “Industrial and wastewater discharge, mining activities, agricultural runoff, and electronic waste processing were identified as potential contributors”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Chirikona et al., 2022

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    • cites L. Zhao et al., 2025

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Coastal China is a global PFAS hotspot due to rapid industrialization and insufficient emission controls.

    “Coastal China is a global PFAS hotspot due to rapid industrialization and insufficient emission controls”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Meng et al., 2021

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    • cites Zhong et al., 2021

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Sediment acts as both a sink within the water column and a secondary source, gradually releasing PFAS into porewater.

    “These findings support the concept that sediment acts as both a sink within the water column and a secondary source, gradually releasing PFAS into porewater.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Organic matter origin might influence PFAS sorption, with allochthonous and autochthonous inputs boosting binding capacity and limiting desorption.

    “Organic matter origin might influence sorption, with both allochthonous (plant detritus, soil erosion) and autochthonous (algae, microbial production) inputs boosting binding capacity and limiting desorption”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Canuel & Hardison, 2016

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    • cites Navarro et al., 2022

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    • cites Oliver et al., 2020

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Daily tidal fluctuations in estuaries can cause four- to sevenfold variations in ∑PFAS concentrations, which decrease with rising tide height.

    “Daily tidal fluctuations in estuaries can also cause four-to sevenfold variations in ∑PFAS concentrations, which decrease with rising tide height”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Singh et al., 2025

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Coarse, highly permeable sediments facilitate PFAS transport, whereas fine-grained, low-permeability sediments promote PFAS retention.

    “Coarse, highly permeable sediments (e.g., sand) facilitate transport, whereas fine-grained, low-permeability sediments (e.g., silt and clay), which have a larger surface area to volume ratio, promote PFAS retention.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Relocation of fluorochemical industries has intensified sediment accumulation in China, elevating PFAS levels linked to urban and industrial discharges.

    “Relocation of fluorochemical industries has intensified sediment accumulation in China, elevating PFAS levels linked to urban and industrial discharges”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Q.Wang et al., 2019

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    • cites Zhong et al., 2021

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Elevated porewater PFAS across field and lab studies underscores its role as a key benthic exposure pathway and vector for contaminant flux back into surface waters.

    “Overall, elevated porewater PFAS across field and lab studies underscores its role as a key benthic exposure pathway and vector for contaminant flux back into surface waters.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    SPM acts as a critical intermediary by concentrating long-chain and emerging PFAS, redistributing them between water and sediment, and sustaining exposure across the system.

    “Together, these findings highlight SPM as a critical intermediary: concentrating long-chain and emerging PFAS, redistributing them between water and sediment, and sustaining exposure across the system.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sorption and desorption influence PFAS mobility, persistence, and ecological risk in sediments, shaped by PFAS physicochemical properties, sediment composition, and environmental conditions.

    “Sorption and desorption influence PFAS mobility, persistence, and ecological risk in sediments, shaped by PFAS physicochemical properties, sediment composition, and environmental conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    HFPO-DA and 6:2 Cl-PFESA exhibited higher log Kd values (1.30 and 1.44 L/kg) than PFOA (-0.02 L/kg) and PFOS (0.73 L/kg), indicating that functional group identity affects partitioning.

    “For example, HFPO-DA (1.30 L/kg) and 6:2 Cl-PFESA (1.44 L/kg) exhibited higher log K d than PFOA (-0.02 L/kg) and PFOS (0.73 L/kg), underscoring the role of functional group identity (Feng et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Feng et al., 2020

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the Yangtze River Estuary, average total PFAS in sea surface water was 11 ± 4 ng/L, largely from short-chain PFCAs and PFSAs.

    “For example, in the Yangtze River Estuary, the average concentration of total PFAS in sea surface water was 11 ± 4 ng/L, largely from short-chain PFCAs and PFSAs (L.Li, Han, et al., 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites L.Li, Han, et al., 2024

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  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    These interactions drive reversible and irreversible sorption, directly influencing PFAS fate.

    “These interactions drive reversible and irreversible sorption, directly influencing PFAS fate (Lyu et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lyu et al., 2022

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Under those conditions, suspended particle-water partitioning increased from 2.14 to 2.26, likely due to resuspension and adsorption onto particulate matter.

    “Interestingly, suspended particle-water partitioning increased under these conditions (from 2.14 to 2.26), likely due to resuspension and adsorption onto particulate matter.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites X. Liu et al. (2021)

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Ionizable functional groups contribute hydrophilicity and determine PFAS charge characteristics, enabling interactions with organic and mineral phases.

    “The ionizable functional groups contribute hydrophilicity and determine the charge characteristics of PFAS, enabling interactions with both organic and mineral phases (Lyu et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lyu et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Log Koc values in SPM to water reach as high as 5.4 for PFUnDA, indicating strong hydrophobic interactions especially for long-chain PFAS.

    “Also, log K oc values in SPM to water reach as high as 5.4 for PFUnDA, indicative of strong hydrophobic interactions, especially for long-chain PFAS (Munoz et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Munoz et al., 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Short-chain PFAS have lower log Kow values and increased hydrophilicity, showing enhanced solubility and mobility in porewater, while longer chains show stronger hydrophobic interactions and a larger affinity for sediment organic matter and mineral surfaces.

    “Short-chain PFAS, characterized by lower log K ow values and increased hydrophilicity, show enhanced solubility and mobility in porewater, while longer chains show stronger hydrophobic interactions and a larger affinity for sediment organic matter and mineral surfaces”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Bai & Son, 2021

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    • cites K. Zhang, Qadeer, et al., 2025

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Turbulence and water confluence enhanced PFAS mobilization from sediments into overlying water, lowering sediment-porewater log Kd from 0.97 to 0.86.

    “X. Liu et al. (2021) found turbulence and water confluence enhanced PFAS mobilization from sediments into overlying water, lowering sedimentporewater log K d (from 0.97 to 0.86).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites X. Liu et al. (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reported sediment-porewater partition fractions for PFPeA, perfluoroheptanoic acid, PFHxA, and PFOA were 33.68%, 50.99%, 64.61%, and 49.1%, respectively.

    “N. Shen et al. (2024) reported φ sedi-pw values of 33.68% for PFPeA, 50.99% for perfluoroheptanoic acid, 64.61% for perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA) and 49.1% for PFOA”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N. Shen et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Sediments with high PFAA loads can act as secondary sources as aqueous concentrations decline, while burial under cleaner sediment layers reduces desorption potential.

    “Sediments with high PFAA loads can act as secondary sources as aqueous concentrations decline, while burial under cleaner sediment layers reduces desorption potential (Bai & Son, 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Bai & Son, 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Sediment exhibits lower Kd values (typically 0.72-2.95) than SPM, reflecting differences in particle size, surface reactivity, and organic matter characteristics.

    “Compared to SPM, sediment exhibits lower K d values (typically 0.72-2.95),reflecting differences in particle size, surface reactivity, and organic matter characteristics (W.Li et al., 2022;Y. Liu et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites W.Li et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Y. Liu et al., 2019

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  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reported SPM concentrations range from 1.7 to 127.72 ng/g dw and are often enriched in long-chain PFAS such as PFOS, PFNA, PFUnDA, and 6:2 FTS.

    “Reported concentrations range from 1.7 to 127.72 ng/g dw (Ding et al., 2018;L. Li, Han, et al., 2024) and are often enriched in long-chain PFAS such as PFOS, PFNA, perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), and 6:2 fluorotelomer sulfonic acid (FTS) (H.Chen et al., 2024;Ding et al., 2018;Göckener et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ding et al., 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites L. Li, Han, et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites H.Chen et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Long-chain PFAS with C ≥ 8 and functionally diverse PFAS preferentially associate with sediment.

    “whereas long-chain (C ≥ 8) and functionally diverse PFAS preferentially associate with sediment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ahrens et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Y. Liu et al., 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites N. Shen et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reported sediment-porewater partition fractions for PFBA, midchain PFCAs C9-C11, PFSAs C6-C8, HFPO-DA, and 6:2 Cl-PFESA ranged from 64.61% to 97.87%, indicating greater retention in the solid phase than in the liquid phase.

    “while 64.61%-97.87% reported for perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA), midchain PFCAs (C9-C11), PFSAs (C6-C8), HFPO-DA, and 6:2 Cl-PFESA, showing higher retention in the solid phase than in the liquid phase.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites N. Shen et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Organic-rich sediments retain PFAS more strongly, while low organic carbon in sediments enhances mobility of dissolved PFAS in overlying water.

    “Generally, organicrich sediments retain PFAS more strongly, while low organic carbon in sediments enhances the mobility of dissolved PFAS in overlaying water (Bai & Son, 2021;Navarro et al., 2022;Oliver et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bai & Son, 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Navarro et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Oliver et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Generally lower concentrations of many short-chain PFAS in sediment and SPM indicate weak partitioning to solids and reinforce their persistence in the aqueous phase.

    “Generally lower concentrations of many short-chain PFAS in sediment and SPM underscore their weak partitioning to solids and reinforce their persistence in the aqueous phase (Ahrens et al., 2010;Göckener et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ahrens et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Göckener et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In water-SPM systems, log Kd values generally range from 2.0 to 3.8 for medium-to-long chain PFCAs and from 1.9 to 3.4 for C6-C8 PFSAs, with sorption capacity increasing with chain length.

    “In water-SPM systems, log K d values generally range between 2.0 and 3.8 for medium-to-long chain PFCAs and 1.9-3.4 for C6-C8 PFSAs (Y.Liu et al., 2019;Munoz et al., 2019), with sorption capacity increasing with chain length (Y.Li, Zhao, et al., 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Y.Liu et al., 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Munoz et al., 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Y.Li, Zhao, et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While acute toxicity appears limited, sediments function as long-term PFAS reservoirs, driving chronic benthic exposure through direct uptake, trophic transfer, and precursor biotransformation.

    “Thus, while acute toxicity appears limited, sediments function as long-term PFAS reservoirs, driving chronic benthic exposure through direct uptake, trophic transfer, and precursor biotransformation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    L. variegatus converted N-EtFOSAA into PFOS, acting as a secondary PFOS source.

    “L. variegatus also converted N-EtFOSAA into PFOS, acting as a secondary PFOS source (Higgins et al., 2007).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Higgins et al., 2007

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Monoporeia affinis exposed to PFOS (50-5000 ng/L) showed reduced survival, impaired development, and higher microsporidian parasite infection.

    “Monoporeia affinis (amphipod) exposed to PFOS (50-5000 ng/L) showed reduced survival, impaired development, and higher microsporidian parasite infection, indicating direct toxicity and immune suppression (Jacobson et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Jacobson et al., 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Desorption is often inhibited under high-salinity conditions, particularly for long-chain PFAS, although the effect is less pronounced in organic-rich sediments where TOC provides a dominant control on retention.

    “Additionally, desorption is often inhibited under high-salinity conditions, particularly for long-chain PFAS, although the effect is less pronounced in organicrich sediments where TOC provides a dominant control on retention (Navarro et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Navarro et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Simulated dredging tests using spiked sediment elutriates showed no acute toxicity in pelagic organisms, suggesting PFAS remobilization from sediments may not present immediate risks under typical environmental conditions.

    “Furthermore, simulated dredging tests using spiked sediment elutriates showed no acute toxicity in pelagic organisms (Cyprinodon variegatus, Pimephales promelas, Ceriodaphnia dubia, Americamysis bahia), suggesting that PFAS remobilization from sediments may not present immediate risks under typical environmental conditions (Krupa et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Krupa et al., 2025

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Longer chain and more hydrophobic PFAS generally exhibit stronger sediment affinity and lower desorption rates.

    “Longer chain and more hydrophobic PFAS generally exhibit stronger sediment affinity and lower desorption rates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most field sediment concentrations fall below this threshold, with no acute toxicity in algae, copepods, or amphipods.

    “Most field sediment concentrations fall below this threshold, with no acute toxicity in algae, copepods, or amphipods (Simpson et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Simpson et al., 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisereasoning

    Natural organic matter and elevated pH inhibit PFAS adsorption through electrostatic repulsion.

    “Conversely, NOM and elevated pH inhibit adsorption through electrostatic repulsion, respectively.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Their sediment RQ calculations ranged from 1.4 × 10^-4 to 8.9 × 10^-1 for PFOS and from 5.0 × 10^-5 to 5.6 × 10^-2 for PFOA, indicating minimal ecological risk under typical conditions.

    “Their sediment RQ calculations ranged from 1.4 × 10 -4 to 8.9 × 10 -1 for PFOS and from 5.0 × 10 -5 to 5.6 × 10 -2 for PFOA, indicating minimal ecological risk under typical conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hua et al. (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Sediments act as persistent, bioavailable PFAS reservoirs that disproportionately affect benthic ecosystems.

    “Sediments act as persistent, bioavailable PFAS reservoirs, disproportionately affecting benthic ecosystems (Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Table 4

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    6:2 Cl-PFESA has maintained persistently high risk (RQ > 1) since the 1970s, with moderate risks (RQ = 0.16-0.38) persisting in recent decades.

    “In contrast, 6:2 Cl-PFESA has maintained persistently high risk (RQ > 1) since the 1970s, with moderate risks (RQ = 0.16-0.38)persisting in recent decades (Q.Wang, Ruan, et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Q.Wang, Ruan, et al., 2025

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Microplastics, particularly secondary microplastics, have the potential to adsorb PFAS from aquatic environments and serve as transport channels.

    “Another research by Salawu et al. (2024) has demonstrated that MPs, particularly secondary MPs, have the potential to adsorb PFAS from aquatic environments, thus serving as potential transport channels.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Salawu et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Species-specific differences in precursor metabolism were observed among Cyprinus carpio, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus, and L. hoffmeisteri, with loach showing higher biotransformation efficiency while worms accumulated more precursors.

    “Species-specific differences in precursor metabolism were observed among Cyprinus carpio (carp), Misgurnus anguillicaudatus (loach), and L. hoffmeisteri, with loach showing higher biotransformation efficiency, while worms accumulated more precursors (M.Chen et al., 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites M.Chen et al., 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Adsorption equilibrium is attained within hours, indicating rapid PFAS-microplastic interaction.

    “Adsorption equilibrium is attained within hours, signifying rapid PFAS-MP interaction.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Bioturbation, sediment composition, and microbial activity modulate PFAS risk in sediments.

    “Bioturbation, sediment composition, and microbial activity modulate this risk, underscoring the need for sediment-focused ecological assessments.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFOA showed medium risk at 41% of sites and low risk at 54% in the East China Sea and Yellow Sea.

    “PFOA showed medium risk at 41% of sites and low risk at 54%.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhong et al. (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Fe(II) markedly increased PFAS sorption under anoxic conditions, surpassing the adsorption enhancement observed with Cu(II) and Cd(II).

    “Notably, Fe(II) was found to markedly increase PFAS sorption under anoxic conditions, surpassing the adsorption enhancement observed with Cu(II) and Cd(II).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chaudhary et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Biota-sediment accumulation factors reached 22-559, and δ13C analysis linked elevated fish PFAS burdens to benthic diets.

    “Biota-sediment accumulation factors reached 22-559, and δ 13 C analysis linked elevated fish PFAS burdens to benthic diets.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Langberg et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Precursors such as 8:2 polyfluoroalkylphosphate diester and N-EtFOSAA are bioavailable and metabolically active.

    “Precursors such as 8:2 polyfluoroalkylphosphate diester and N-ethyl perfluorooc-tane sulfonamidoacetic acid (N-EtFOSAA) are bioavailable and metabolically active.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In Lake Tyrifjorden, despite low water-phase linear PFOS (max 0.18 ng/L), perch livers averaged 149 ng/g, with BAF up to 5.14 × 10^6.

    “Field data from Lake Tyrifjorden highlight this instances: despite low water-phase linear perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (max 0.18 ng/L), perch livers averaged 149 ng/g, with bioaccumulation factors (BAF) up to 5.14 × 10 6 (Langberg et al., 2020).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Langberg et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFOA consistently posed low risk (RQ < 0.1), while PFOS showed RQ > 1 from the 1960s to 2010s, declining only after regulatory controls.

    “PFOA consistently posed low risk (RQ < 0.1), while PFOS showed RQ > 1 from the 1960s to 2010s, declining only after regulatory controls (Q.Wang, Ruan, et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Q.Wang, Ruan, et al., 2025

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reported 24-h desorption rates range from 9% to 69% for PFOS, 33% to 91% for PFOA, and 43% to 116% for PFHxS, consistent with median Kd values of 30.4 L/kg for PFOS, 3.3 L/kg for PFOA, and 2.8 L/kg for PFHxS.

    “For example, reported 24-h desorption rates range from 9% to 69% for PFOS, 33% to 91% for PFOA, and 43% to 116% for PFHxS (Oliver et al., 2020), consistent with median K d values of 30.4 L/kg for PFOS, 3.3 L/kg for PFOA, and 2.8 L/kg for PFHxS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Oliver et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    L. variegatus bioturbation reduced PFAS accumulation in Myriophyllum spicatum but facilitated greater root uptake of degradable PFAS precursors.

    “Similarly, L. variegatus bioturbation reduced PFAS accumulation in Myriophyllum spicatum (aquatic plant) but facilitated greater root uptake of degradable PFAS precursors, indicating reciprocal interactions between biotic activity and contaminant mobility (Gkika et al., 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gkika et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Bioturbation by Hyalella azteca and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri enhanced PFOS release into suspended particulates, lowering pore/overlying water PFAS but increasing exposure for cohabiting species; Chironomus kiiensis suffered 100% mortality under these conditions.

    “Hyalella azteca and Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri activity enhanced PFOS release into suspended particulates, lowering pore/overlying water PFAS but increasing exposure for cohabiting species; Chironomus kiiensis suffered 100% mortality under these conditions (Z.Wu, Li, et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Z.Wu, Li, et al., 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFAS uptake by benthic organisms occurs via dermal contact, sediment ingestion, and trophic transfer.

    “Uptake occurs via dermal contact, sediment ingestion, and trophic transfer (Abercrombie et al., 2020;Simpson et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Abercrombie et al., 2020

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Simpson et al., 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the East China Sea and Yellow Sea, 71% of sampling sites showed medium ecological risk for PFOS (RQ = 0.1-1), while high risk (RQ > 1) was recorded in four hotspots.

    “For PFOS, 71% of sampling sites showed medium ecological risk (RQ = 0.1-1), while high risk (RQ > 1) was recorded in four hotspots.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhong et al. (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Simpson et al. (2021) reported lowest observed effect concentrations for PFOS at 0.28 mg/L for bivalve growth, 0.49 mg/L for amphipod survival, and 1.2 mg/L for amphipod reproduction.

    “Simpson et al. (2021) reported lowest observed effect concentrations for PFOS at 0.28 mg/L (bivalve growth), 0.49 mg/L (amphipod survival), and 1.2 mg/L (amphipod reproduction).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Simpson et al. (2021)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    In the United States, the EPA finalized enforceable maximum contaminant levels in 2024 for drinking water, with compliance due by 2031: 4 ng/L for PFOA and PFOS; 10 ng/L for PFNA, PFHxS, and HFPO-DA; and 2000 ng/L for PFBS.

    “In the United States, the EPA finalized enforceable maximum contaminant levels in 2024 for drinking water, with compliance due by 2031: 4 ng/L for PFOA and PFOS; 10 ng/L for PFNA, PFHxS, and HFPO-DA (GenX); and 2000 ng/L for PFBS.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites USEPA, 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Yu et al. (2024) showed AC amendments lowered PFAA release by 45.5%-99.2% under low disturbance and by 61.0%-98.8% under high disturbance.

    “Yu et al. (2024) showed AC amendments lowered PFAA release by 45.5%-99.2%under low disturbance and by 61.0%-98.8%under high disturbance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    PFAS with longer chains or sulfonate groups are more hydrophobic and have a stronger affinity for sediment.

    “This trend mirrors log K ow : longer chain and sulfonated PFAS show greater hydrophobicity and sediment affinity (Y.Chen et al., 2023; Meng et al., 2021; S. Xiao et al., 2021).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Y.Chen et al., 2023

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Meng et al., 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites S. Xiao et al., 2021

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Emerging PFAS and replacements often have higher sediment-water partitioning coefficients.

    “Emerging PFAS and replacements, often with higher sediment-water partitioning coefficients, require systematic inclusion in monitoring and risk frameworks.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Premisenone given

    Remediation approaches remain largely experimental or cost-prohibitive.

    “Remediation approaches remain largely experimental or cost-prohibitive;”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Destructive techniques such as sonolysis and smoldering combustion are actively investigated but not field ready, while separation methods demonstrate feasibility yet face deployment barriers.

    “Destructive techniques, such as sonolysis and smoldering combustion, are actively investigated but not field ready, while separation methods (foam fractionation, thermal desorption, and soil washing) demon-strate feasibility yet face deployment barriers (Abrams et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Abrams et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The emerging compounds 6:2 and 8:2 Cl-PFESAs have high log Kow values (5.24-7.03) and high log Kd.

    “Emerging compounds such as 6:2 and 8:2 chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acids (Cl-PFESAs) also exhibit high log K ow (5.24-7.03)and log K d (H.Chen et al., 2024;Higgins & Luthy, 2006;Tang et al., 2022).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites H.Chen et al., 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Higgins & Luthy, 2006

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Tang et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Organisms living in sediments are exposed to higher PFAS levels via uptake, accumulation in tissues, and transfer through food webs.

    “Sediment-dwelling organisms face heightened exposure through bioavailability, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer, influenced by bioturbation, microbial transformations, and local geochemical factors.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Proposed EU thresholds include a stricter biota limit of 0.0077 ng/g ww and a surface water standard of 4.4 ng/L, shifting emphasis from fish consumption toward drinking-water exposure.

    “Proposed thresholds include a stricter biota limit (0.0077 ng/g ww) and a surface water standard of 4.4 ng/L, shifting emphasis from fish consumption toward drinking-water exposure.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Overall average sediment RQs remained low, but hotspots and interspecies variability demand site-specific, long-term assessments, particularly in historically contaminated or industrial regions.

    “Overall, average sediment RQs remained low, but hotspots and interspecies variability demand sitespecific, long-term assessments, particularly in historically contaminated or industrial regions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sediment is addressed only indirectly through CERCLA-driven cleanups and discharge regulations, offering reactive rather than preventive control.

    “Sediment is only addressed indirectly through CERCLA-driven cleanups and discharge regulations, offering reactive rather than preventive control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Sorbent amendments are cost-effective and minimally invasive, immobilizing PFAS by reducing mobility and bioavailability and supporting natural recovery.

    “Among in situ methods, sorbent amendments are costeffective and minimally invasive.These materials, when integrated into the sediment matrix, immobilize PFAS by reducing their mobility and bioavailability, supporting natural recovery processes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    Because the EU and the United States have no sediment-specific EQS, a regulatory gap exists that undermines long-term PFAS management.

    “Policy progress has been achieved in drinking water and biota standards in the EU and United States; however, both jurisdictions lack sediment-specific EQS, leaving a critical regulatory gap that weakens long-term PFAS management.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

    Interpretationnone given

    PFAS partitioning among sediment, SPM, and porewater is controlled by complex geochemical interactions such as organic matter, mineralogy, and electrostatics that remain poorly quantified.

    “PFAS partitioning among sediment, SPM, and porewater is controlled by complex geochemical interactions such as organic matter, mineralogy, and electrostatics that remain poorly quantified.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisenone given

    In 2022, a revised EQS proposal extended coverage to 24 PFAS based on EFSA's 2020 Tolerable Weekly Intake.

    “In 2022, a revised EQS proposal extended coverage to 24 PFAS, based on European Food Safety Authority's 2020 Tolerable Weekly Intake.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    The 2020 Drinking Water Directive (effective 2023) added combined limits of 100 ng/L for 20 PFAS and 500 ng/L for total PFAS in public water supplies.

    “The 2020 Drinking Water Directive (effective 2023) added combined limits of 100 ng/L for 20 PFAS and 500 ng/L for total PFAS in public water supplies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    High doses of AC can alter microbial community structures and negatively impact benthic organisms, particularly deposit-feeding species.

    “High doses of AC can alter the structures of microbial communities and negatively impact benthic organisms, particularly depositfeeding species (Jonker et al., 2009;Kupryianchyk et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Jonker et al., 2009

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Kupryianchyk et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The log Koc of perfluoroalkyl acids rises with carbon chain length, from 2.84 for PFOA to 4.63 for PFTrDA, an increase of roughly 0.22-0.24 log units per CF2 group.

    “with log K oc from 2.84 (perfluorooctanoic acid [PFOA]) to 4.63 (PFTrDA), rising ∼0.22-0.24log units per CF 2 group (Tulcan et al., 2025).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tulcan et al., 2025

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Field-scale data on sediment remediation remain sparse, with most technologies still in development or pilot testing.

    “However, field-scale data on sediment remediation remain sparse, with most technologies still in development or pilot testing.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Physical removal by dredging or excavation followed by off-site incineration or advanced oxidation can fully destroy PFAS, but these methods are energy-intensive and expensive, limiting application to high-priority or localized sites.

    “Physical removal by dredging or excavation, followed by off-site incineration or advanced oxidation processes, can fully destroy PFAS.However, these methods are energy-intensive and expensive, limiting their application to high-priority or localized contamination sites (Lampert, 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Lampert, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Health Canada set a drinking water target of 30 ng/L for 25 PFAS compounds.

    “but Health Canada collaborated with provinces, territories, and other federal agencies to set a drinking water target of 30 ng/L for 25 PFAS compounds (Health Canada, 2024).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Health Canada, 2024

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Other sorbent-based methods including biochar, ion exchange resins, and carbon nanotubes show promise but remain at pilot scale.

    “Other sorbent-based methods, including biochar, ion exchange resins, and carbon nanotubes, show promise but remain at pilot scale.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Abrams et al., 2022

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Long-term AC applications improved sediment resilience with limited ecological disruption.

    “Long-term AC applications improved sediment resilience with limited ecological disruption.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Yu et al. (2024)

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    In the EU, PFAS are primarily regulated under the Water Framework Directive, which sets EQS for PFOS at 0.65 ng/L in inland waters, 0.13 ng/L in coastal waters, and 9.1 ng/g ww in fish.

    “In the EU, PFAS are primarily regulated under the Water Framework Directive, which sets environmental quality standards (EQS) for compounds such as PFOS: 0.65 ng/L (inland waters), 0.13 ng/L (coastal waters), and 9.1 ng/g ww in fish.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Premisenone given

    Current risk assessments are geographically biased, with most work focused on Chinese coastal systems; comparable data from inland waters, polar regions, and developing countries are sparse.

    “Current risk assessments are geographically biased, with most work focused on Chinese coastal systems; comparable data from inland waters, polar regions, and developing countries are sparse, limiting global-scale evaluations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
111 of 111

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The set of 88 studies is representative enough of global aquatic sediments to support continent-level comparisons.

    “A total of 88 studies (2015-present) have assessed the distribution of PFAS in aquatic sediment worldwide, which include lakes, rivers, estuaries, and marine environments.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Summing concentrations of individual PFAS compounds across studies with different target lists yields comparable total PFAS concentrations.

    “The mean concentration values were derived by summing the concentrations of all individual PFAS compounds at each sampling point and then averaging these totals across the entire site.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    A comprehensive synthesis of sediment-specific PFAS dynamics and global distribution is lacking.

    “comprehensive insight into sediment-specific PFAS dynamics and global distribution remains scarce to the best of my knowledge”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The upper 0-10 cm sediment layer is the appropriate compartment for assessing PFAS as a long-term reservoir.

    “the term”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    PFAS are anthropogenic chemicals that persist in the environment and can impact aquatic life.

    “PFAS, a group of manmade chemicals released and dispersed into the ecosystems, remain a persistent global environmental concern that can impact aquatic life.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The peer-reviewed literature synthesized is representative of global PFAS sediment distribution.

    “A synthesis of peer-reviewed literature revealed that PFAS contamination in sediments is widespread across the globe, with the African continent found to be more contaminated.”
6 of 6

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The fate and transport of sediment-bound PFAS in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and open waters are governed by different hydrological processes, making watershed-level sediment monitoring critical.

    “While there are several other studies on PFAS occurrence in sediment, the fate and transport of sedimentbound PFAS in rivers, lakes, estuaries, and open waters are governed by different hydrological processes, 29,30 rendering it critical to perform watershed level sediment monitoring”

    From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [29]

    Section 3.2 says hydrological fluctuations can remobilize PFAS from sediments, and the Conclusion recommends including sediments in PFAS monitoring. The paper does not establish that distinct hydrological processes govern sediment-bound PFAS across rivers, lakes, estuaries, and open waters, or specifically call for watershed-level monitoring on that basis. No page numbers were available for these passages. (LLM, conf=0.83)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Short-chain PFAS (PFBS, PFBA, PFMeS) were predominantly detected in the dissolved phase, reflecting their higher aqueous solubility and lower sorption coefficients.

    “In contrast, short-chain PFAS (PFBS, PFBA, PFMeS) were predominantly detected in the dissolved phase, reflecting their higher aqueous solubility and lower sorption coefficients.”

    From Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Surface Water and Fluvial Sediments of a Rural Gulf Coast Watershed: A Year-long Spatiotemporal Assessment (2026) · cites this paper as [29]

    Section 3.3 (page unavailable) says short-chain PFAS predominate in porewater because of greater solubility and mobility, and lower sorption; Section 3.4 names PFBA and PFBS among dissolved PFAS in surface water. The copy does not establish the claim specifically for PFMeS, so the three-compound list is not fully supported. (LLM, conf=0.88)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • South African dam mean falls below its reported range

    Major

    The reported mean of 274.1 ng/g is below the reported minimum of 400.5 ng/g for the same site. This affects the site identified as having Africa's highest average.

  • Apies River mean falls below its reported range

    Major

    Table 1 gives a mean of 31.35 ng/g, although its reported concentrations range from 300 to 350 ng/g. A mean of values in that range cannot be 31.35 ng/g.

  • Florida study has conflicting targeted-compound counts

    Minor

    The narrative says Griffin et al. targeted 93 PFAS, whereas its Table 1 row lists 92.

  • Michigan mean exceeds its reported maximum

    Minor

    The Michigan row reports a mean of 7.32 ng/g but a maximum of 3.25 ng/g. The mean cannot exceed the maximum of the values averaged.

  • Gironde row detects more compounds than it targets

    Minor

    Table 3 lists 26 targeted PFAS and 27 detected PFAS for the same Gironde Estuary study. The detected count cannot exceed the targeted count under the table's stated headings.

5 of 5

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Cited by

Sorted by citations

Authors
Ehsan, M. N.
Affiliations
Southeast University (BD)
Corresponding author
Ehsan, Mohammad Nazmul
ORCID
Ehsan, Mohammad Nazmul
Venue
Journal of Environmental Quality
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2026-01
Volume
55
Issue
1
Pages
e70148-e70148
ISSN
  • 0047-2425 (ISSN-L)
  • 1537-2537
DOI
10.1002/jeq2.70148
OpenAlex
W7126240361
Cited by
2
References
26
Citations by year
2026: 2
FWCI
1.13
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Environmental Quality (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Toxic Organic Pollutants Impact
  • Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Health, Toxicology and Mutagenesis › Environmental Toxicology and Ecotoxicology
Keywords
per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, PFAS, aquatic sediments, global distribution, suspended particulate matter, benthic organisms, bioaccumulation, trophic transfer, environmental risk assessment, persistent organic pollutants
MeSH terms
Animals, Environmental Monitoring, Fluorocarbons, Water Pollutants, Chemical, Geologic Sediments

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-06.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-06.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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