Proximal and Distal Terror Management Defenses
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All participants included in the present analyses provided complete data, including responses on the filler task(s) used to cause the requisite delay and distraction between prime and dependent variables.
“Additionally, all participants included in the present analyses provided complete data, including responses on the filler task(s) used to cause the requisite delay and distraction between prime and dependent variables [23, 24].”
From Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
All participants completed the delay tasks, each of which is a well-established and/or prototypical measure.
“All participants completed the delay tasks, each of which is a well-established and/or prototypical measure [23, 24].”
From Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
Following the delay, the inability to suppress death thoughts results in behavioral and attitudinal shifts (distal effects).
“Following the delay, the inability to suppress death thoughts results in behavioral and attitudinal shifts (distal effects) that are of interest to the researcher.”
From Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
Immediately following the MS induction, thoughts of death are reflexively and unconsciously suppressed (proximal effects), which after 2-6 minutes are ineffective due to a depletion of cognitive resources necessary to suppress these thoughts.
“Numerous studies suggest that immediately following the MS induction, thoughts of death are reflexively and unconsciously suppressed (proximal effects), which, after 2–6 minutes, are ineffective due to a depletion of cognitive resources necessary to suppress these thoughts [24].”
From Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
A seemingly necessary component of successful death-thought accessibility is a delay between the experimental induction and the measure of interest.
“A seemingly necessary component of successful death-thought accessibility is a delay between the experimental induction (i.e., the MS task) and the measure of interest [21, 23, 24].”
From Not so terrifying after all? A set of failed replications of the mortality salience effects of Terror Management Theory (2023) · cites this paper as [24]
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Vaccination anxiety when vaccinations are available: The role of existential concerns
Bodner, E., Bergman, Y. S., Ben‐David, B. M., & Palgi, Y. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3079 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Treger, S., Benau, E. M., & Timko, C. A. (2023) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0285267 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Numerous studies suggest that immediately following the MS induction, thoughts of death are reflexively and unconsciously suppressed (proximal effects), which, after 2–6 minutes, are ineffective due to a depletion of cognitive resources necessary to suppress these thoughts [24].”
BackgroundInfluentialSaar‐Ashkenazy, R., Bergman, Y. S., Ashkenazy, O., & Guez, J. (2024) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008066.2024.2328506 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Psychology Students' Perceptions of COVID-19 in a Death Education Course
Testoni, I., Iacona, E., Corso, C., Pompele, S., Corso, L. D., Orkibi, H., & Wieser, M. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.625756 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Gruber, R., Häfner, M., & Kachel, S. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12700 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The Impact of Mortality Salience on Organ Donation Attitude, Beliefs, and Behavior
Reynolds‐Tylus, T., Harvell-Bowman, L. A., & Sarlo, M. E. (2021) · Journal of Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10810730.2021.1891484 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“In contrast, when thoughts of death are unconscious, individuals engage in distal defense, whereby greater support for cultural worldviews is expected (Kosloff et al., 2019).”
BackgroundEliciting Mortality Salience in Dark Tourism and its Influence
Kai, B., & Chen, R. (2024) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/00472875231223659 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Death Anxiety and Resilience in Older Adults: The Moderating Role of Attachment Patterns
Bergman, Y. S. (2024) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs14111031 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“In order to ward off such difficult death-related thoughts and feelings, TMT claims that several defense mechanisms are activated when mortality awareness becomes salient [35].”
Bergman, Y. S., Saar‐Ashkenazy, R., Faran, Y., Klonover, E., & Palgi, Y. (2025) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1002/jts.23131 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
The Existential Quest: Doubt, Openness, and the Exploration of Religious Uncertainty
Arrowood, R. B., Vail, K. E., & Cox, C. R. (2021) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1080/10508619.2021.1902647 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Horner, D. E., Sielaff, A., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2021) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2021.1982940 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Bergman, Y. S., & Bodner, E. (2022) · GeroPsych · doi:10.1024/1662-9647/a000295 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Smith, L. K. M., & Wolfe, S. E. (2023) · People and Nature · doi:10.1002/pan3.10505 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Qi, J. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672221081270 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Delay of Gratification, Gender Role Attitudes, and Death Reflections Predict Death Anxiety
Zampella, B. J., & Benau, E. M. (2022) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228221085177 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Health care utilization as a predictor of death anxiety in older adults
Becker, T. (2020) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2020.1774942 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Following MS induction, the mind uses direct and logical proximal defenses to consciously deny the vulnerability of mortality and DTA (Kosloff et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodResultGerlach, C., Baus, M., Gianicolo, E., Bayer, O., Haugen, D. F., Weber, M., Mayland, C. R., ERANet-LAC CODE Core scientific group, Sigurdardottir, K., Hansen, M. I. T., et al. (2023) · Supportive Care in Cancer · doi:10.1007/s00520-022-07490-9 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wang, K., Sun, Z., Hou, Y., & Yuan, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1190906 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
“Our method sequentially triggers both proximal and distal defenses, potentially yielding different outcomes (Arndt et al., 1997a,b; Pyszczynski et al., 1999; Kosloff et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodFacing a real threat of death: dynamic changes in death-thought accessibility
Zhou, J., Chen, Y., Xu, Y., Liao, B., & Fu, W. (2022) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s361432 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Death education and educators: The role of attitudes, anxiety, and future time perspective
Ferrari, L., Sgaramella, T. M., & Testoni, I. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2487772 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
The Effect of Death Anxiety on Work Passion: Moderating Roles of Work Centrality and Work Connection
AL-Dossary, S., Sousa, C., & Gonçalves, G. (2024) · Omega · doi:10.1177/00302228241236227 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Do Pandemics Trigger Death Thoughts?
Leung, H.-T., Chew, P. K. H., & Caltabiano, N. J. (2024) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/00221678241273422 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Staller, M. S., Körner, S., & Zaiser, B. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-40118-4_7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Bergman, Y. S., & Weissberger, G. H. (2024) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3408 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
God is up and devil is down: mortality salience increases implicit spatial-religious associations
Rihs, M., Mast, F. W., & Hartmann, M. (2022) · Religion Brain & Behavior · doi:10.1080/2153599x.2022.2035800 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“The dual process-model of TMT distinguishes between proximal and distal defense mechanisms (Kosloff et al., 2019; Pyszczynski et al., 1999).”
BackgroundZhou, J. L., Zhou, F., Tang, Y., & Ma, J. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-03037-9 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Shilo-Levin, S., & Bergman, Y. S. (2022) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228221078096 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Death Distress and Religiosity Among Spanish Patients Diagnosed With Depression and Anxiety
Armas-Arráez, M. M., Padilla, G. M., Fernández-Mateos, L. M., & Sánchez-Cabaco, A. (2023) · Omega · doi:10.1177/00302228231186369 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Hu, C., Zhang, H., Short, L. A., Liu, M., Huang, C., Liang, Z., Yang, Y., Huang, M., & Xie, D. (2023) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2023.2280227 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Trachtingot, I., Maytles, R., & Bergman, Y. S. (2024) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-023-01992-4 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Smith, L. K. M., Bergsieker, H. B., & Wolfe, S. E. (2025) · PLOS Water · doi:10.1371/journal.pwat.0000460 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“TMT scholars have identified predictable human responses to mortality reminders that serve to temper the existential anxiety that these reminders induce [85,86].”
Li, L., Wu, D., He, Q., & Chen, J. (2026) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2025.1741292 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The effect of collective trauma on craving for cannabis and tobacco
Skvirsky, V., Lifshin, U., Yacubovitz, M., Avnit, H., Dvir, T., Marcus, M., Regev, M., Flor, R., & Mikulincer, M. (2026) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053261450563 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Arrowood, R. B., Cox, C. R., & Silver, C. F. (2023) · Mental Health Religion & Culture · doi:10.1080/13674676.2023.2268546 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Enough Terror to Belong: The Nonlinear Association of Death Anxiety with Group Identification
Li, C., Dang, J., & Liu, L. (2024) · Depression and Anxiety · doi:10.1155/2024/3699789 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Death perceptions, grief, and distress in Ultra-Orthodox Jews who witnessed the 2021 Meron disaster
Weissberger, G. H., Bergman, Y. S., Maytles, R., & Trachtengot, I. (2024) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2024.2400374 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Smith, L. K. M., & Wolfe, S. E. (2025) · PsyEcology Bilingual Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1177/21711976241309249 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Rihs, M., Brodwolf, F. L., & Mast, F. W. (2025) · Death Studies · doi:10.1080/07481187.2025.2469137 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Mahmoodi, H., & Payghambari, S. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3967279 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Chen, F., Xiao, Z., Zhang, Q., Xiong, Y., Xia, W., Yan, M., Ye, Z., Ou, M., & Xu, X. (2026) · Psycho-Oncology · doi:10.1002/pon.70492
Erol, F. (2023) · Journal of Southeast European and Black Sea Studies · doi:10.1080/14683857.2023.2189541
COVID-19 symptoms and compliance: The mediating role of fundamental social motives
Liu, R., Zheng, X., Wang, Z., Zhou, M., Weng, J., Li, Y., & Chen, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093875 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
A Qualitative Study of How Hospice Workers Cope With Their Level of Exposure to Death
Sielaff, A., Rothschild, L., Horner, D. E., & Greenberg, J. (2023) · OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying · doi:10.1177/00302228231184297
Terror Management During and After the COVID-19 Pandemic
Horner, D. E., Sielaff, A., Pyszczynski, T., & Greenberg, J. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197615133.003.0033
Mortality salience effects and status consumption–A reasoned action approach
Arendsen, J., van Koningsbruggen, G. M., & Fransen, M. L. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0350005
“This leads to a “spreading activation of worldview-relevant cognitions” [10], which is an activation of beliefs that are relevant to one’s worldview and self-esteem, which can subsequently trigger behaviors that bolster that worldview and self-esteem [11] (see Fig 1 for a conceptual overview).”
Profitiliotis, G., & Theologou, K. (2026) · Futures & Foresight Science · doi:10.1002/ffo2.70053
Ng, A., Yeo, S., Neo, S., & Menzies, R. E. (2026) · SSM - Qualitative Research in Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2026.100863
- Authors
- Kosloff, S., Anderson, G., Nottbohm, A., & Hoshiko, B.
- Affiliations
- California State University, Fresno (US)
- Venue
- Handbook of Terror Management Theory
- Publisher
- Elsevier
- Published
- 2019
- Pages
- 31-63
- OpenAlex
- W2936228461
- Cited by
- 47
- References
- 109
- Citations by year
- 2026: 6 · 2025: 6 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 1
- FWCI
- 19.21
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Elsevier eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Anthropology › Death, Funerary Practices, and Mourning
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- terror management theory, fear of death, mortality salience, dual-process models, death denial, death avoidance, cultural worldview, self-esteem, death-thought accessibility, emotions
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