A Process-Based Analysis of Cognitive Defusion in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive defusion is among the main components of Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT), a contextual behavioral approach to psychotherapy. Defusion serves as a middle-level term, and, as such, may be useful for applying and disseminating behavior science, despite its lower precision. However, some authors argue that for middle-level terms in psychotherapy to be useful to clinicians, they need to be clearly linked to basic behavioral concepts, with higher precision; and that this is not currently the case with defusion. Our objective is to increase the pragmatic utility of the concept of "cognitive defusion" by providing a more nuanced, multifaceted and process-based definition of the term. In order to do this, we surveyed the ACT literature regarding defusion and critically examined it through the lens of conceptual analysis. This culminated in a revised and updated conceptualization of defusion in terms of its relationship to basic behavioral concepts, in which defusion is an outcome that may be achieved through different processes.
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6 of 22 cited sources checked · 3 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
- Background
Tyndall and colleagues found that a repetition rate of one word per second yielded the greatest reductions in discomfort and believability, which conflicts with an exposure explanation.
“However, Tyndall et al. (2017) compared the rate of repetition for 30 seconds: 0.5, 1 and 2 words per second.The exposure hypothesis would predict that the third group, given more exposure to the word, would experience larger effects.But, the one word per second group in fact experienced the greatest reductions in thought discomfort and believability.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified1 of 1 sources checked- cites Tyndall et al., 2017 source
- Background
Defusion emerged from the idea that thoughts do not automatically govern behavior and that contextual conditions are needed for such control.
“An alternative to restructuring, defusion arose from the insight that thoughts do not necessarily exert control over behavior, with some contextual conditions being necessary to support this type of functional behavior-behavior relation (Hayes & Brownstein, 1986).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified1 of 1 sources checked- cites Hayes & Brownstein, 1986 source
In “Mental Causality as Behavior-Behavior Relation” (page unavailable), the paper says that a relation between thinking and overt behavior requires analysis of the contingencies that produce it, supporting the claim that thoughts do not automatically control behavior. Our copy does not say that defusion arose from this insight or contrast defusion with restructuring. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Background
Middle-level terms sacrifice precision to gain practical usefulness in disseminating behavioral science.
“All of these are regarded as middle-level terms, concepts that intentionally forsake high precision 2 in favor of pragmatic utility in applying and disseminating behavioral science (Hayes et al., 2012;Vilardaga et al., 2009).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified1 of 2 sources checked- cites Hayes et al., 2012 source
- cites Vilardaga et al., 2009 source
The section on middle-level functional terms (page unavailable) describes them as practical shortcuts for applying behavioral principles and making behavior-analytic knowledge more accessible to non-specialists. It does not say that they intentionally sacrifice precision for that usefulness. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Method
The paper calls for more experimental analog studies that manipulate parameters, relational framing types, and experiential training to test and refine the defusion conceptualization.
“What is needed are more experimental analog studies that go beyond merely evaluating the effects of specific exercises designed to create defusion.Such research could include manipulating distinct parameters within the same procedure to promote defusion, such as execution parameters (Masuda et al., 2009;Tyndall et al., 2017), types of relational framing (Foody et al., 2013;Gil-Luciano et al., 2017;Lo ´pez-Lo ´pez & Luciano, 2017), and experiential training (Mandavia et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified2 of 3 sources checked - Background
Studies have shown that formal stimulus properties, such as word color or speaker voice, can disrupt previously established symbolic functions.
“More recently, studies demonstrated that formal properties such as the color of a written word or the speaker's voice are capable of interfering and disrupting already established symbolic functions (Kenny et al., 2014;Stewart et al., 2002;Stewart & Lavelle, 2013).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified1 of 3 sources checked- cites Kenny et al., 2014 source
- cites Stewart et al., 2002 source
The Discussion (p. 9) reports that color matching interfered with equivalence responding. It explicitly says the study examined interference with the emergence of derived relations, not disruption of already well-established ones. The passages describe written-stimulus color, not speaker voice. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured - cites Stewart & Lavelle, 2013 source
- Finding
The paper proposes that defusion is an outcome marked by broadened stimulus control, with less influence from prior verbal functions and more from other sources, while symbolic relations remain unchanged.
“Given the foregoing, we propose a new understanding of defusion in which it is conceptualized as an outcome characterized by broadened stimulus control over behavior.That is, we propose that defusion has occurred when there is reduced control by previously established verbal stimulus functions and increased control by other sources without a change in the symbolic relations between the relevant stimuli.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper argues that playing with words exercises promote defusion by increasing attention to formal stimulus properties, thereby altering stimulus control.
“Based on this, we argue that playing with words procedures foster selective attending to the formal (auditory, visual or proprioceptive) properties of stimuli that have verbally acquired functions, altering stimulus control and promoting defusion.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper characterizes procedures that reinforce alternative responses to thoughts as a differential reinforcement of alternative responses (DRA) process.
“Either way, this could be characterized as a Differential Reinforcement of Alternative Responses (DRA) procedure, in which the usual response is extinguished in favor of new, alternative ones that are reinforced (cf.Vollmer & Iwata, 1992).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Vollmer & Iwata, 1992 source
- Finding
The paper argues that repeating a word aloud can shift control from its meaning to its phonetic or proprioceptive properties.
“In line with our definition of defusion as an outcome of broadened stimulus control, with reduced influence of previously verbally acquired functions without altering established symbolic relations between stimuli, repeating a word out loud can shift stimulus control from the word's meaning to its formal properties, whether phonetic or proprioceptive.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper concludes that cognitive defusion is an outcome of broadened stimulus control over behavior.
“In summary, we argue that cognitive defusion is an outcome of broadened stimulus control over behavior, that has occurred when there is reduced control by previously established verbal stimulus functions and increased control by other sources without altering the symbolic relations between the relevant stimuli.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper suggests that objectifying thoughts reduces their control by highlighting physical properties and framing them as spatially distant from the self.
“Therefore, objectifying thoughts may highlight the physical properties attributed to them, selectively attended by the client, and simultaneously reduce the control they exert by establishing them as spatially distant from oneself with spatial and deictic AARRing.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper claims its conceptualization is coherent with RFT and behavioral principles, improves precision, and links defusion procedures and processes to basic concepts.
“To begin with, since our analysis was guided by RFT concepts and behavioral principles and was kept within these boundaries, it is coherent with the underlying theory and their underlying philosophy.Furthermore, by explicitly using the concept of defusion to refer to an outcome and distinguishing it from relevant procedures and process that lead to it, the present conceptualization enhances the concept's precision in comparison to other approaches.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper proposes that framing thoughts as coming from an unreliable speaker creates an incoherent relational network that disrupts function transformation, producing defusion.
“Thus, by framing thoughts as distinct from or part of a speaker, who is unreliable due to its functional and historical nature, the client and the therapist may create an incoherent relational network.These newly formed arbitrary relations between stimuli lead to broader stimulus control and disruption of potential transformation of function caused by thinking.In other words, cognitive defusion.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Finding
The paper argues that fusion and defusion form a continuum rather than an all-or-nothing distinction.
“One clear implication of this is that fusion and defusion are not all-ornothing, but should be thought of as a continuum, with higher or lower control of a single verbally acquired function (Blackledge, 2007).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Blackledge, 2007 source
- Finding
The paper outlines four possible process pathways to defusion: selective attending, spatial distancing, relational coherence, and differential reinforcement.
“We have outlined four potential process pathways: selective attending, spatial distancing, relational coherence and differential reinforcement (Table 1).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
Blackledge proposed that altering contextual conditions can disrupt verbally based transformations of function, which he considered the core of defusion.
“We can thus logically assume [emphasis added] that changing these contextual conditions in certain ways would lead to a disruption of these verbally based functional transformations.This, it is argued, is the essence of cognitive defusion.(Blackledge, 2007, p. 561)”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Blackledge, 2007 source
- Background
Assaz and colleagues suggested that defusion can be reached through several distinct process pathways.
“The authors argued that there were multiple process pathways by which the outcome of defusion can be achieved, each of them exemplified by a list of procedures found in the ACT literature (Assaz et al., 2018).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Assaz et al., 2018 source
- Background
Sidman's research on derived equivalence relations stimulated extensive work on derived relational responding.
“Sidman and colleagues' groundbreaking work on the emergence of derived equivalence relations among stimuli (Sidman, 1994) sparked an enormous interest in derived relational responding.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Sidman, 1994
- Method
The authors reviewed ACT literature on defusion and analyzed it conceptually.
“In order to do this, we surveyed the ACT literature regarding defusion and critically examined it through the lens of conceptual analysis.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified - Background
ACT is typically described via the Psychological Flexibility Model, which has six components including cognitive defusion.
“Since the early 2000s, ACT's therapeutic approach has been commonly presented through the Psychological Flexibility Model. 1 It is comprised of six components: acceptance, cognitive defusion, self-as-context, contact with the present moment, values and committed action (Hayes & Strosahl, 2004).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Hayes & Strosahl, 2004
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Background
RFT holds that relational coherence often acts as a conditioned reinforcer because it matters for social communication and problem solving.
“According to RFT, relational coherence often functions as a conditioned reinforcer due to its importance in social communication and problem-solving (Bordieri et al., 2016;Quin ˜ones & Hayes, 2014).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 2 sources checked- cites Bordieri et al., 2016 source
- cites Quin ˜ones & Hayes, 2014
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Background
Masuda and colleagues found that repeating a word for 20 to 30 seconds produced larger changes in distress and believability than shorter durations.
“Specifically, Masuda et al. (2009) contrasted 1, 3, 10, 20, and 30 seconds word repetition over two experiments and found that the range between 20 and 30 seconds leads to the greater changes in a thought's associated distress and believability.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 1 sources checked- cites Masuda et al., 2009 source
- Background
The paper identifies that defusion is used in ACT literature to refer to procedure, process, and outcome, creating conceptual ambiguity.
“One of the main conceptual problems with defusion is that this term is used in the ACT literature to describe all three of the foregoing distinct phenomena: procedure, process, and outcome (Assaz et al., 2018;Barnes-Holmes et al., 2016;McEnteggart et al., 2015).”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified0 of 3 sources checked - Method
The paper aims to make cognitive defusion more pragmatically useful by offering a more nuanced, multifaceted, process-based definition.
“Our objective is to increase the pragmatic utility of the concept of "cognitive defusion" by providing a more nuanced, multifaceted and process-based definition of the term.”
Quote in the paperNot yet classified
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Defusion aims to create distance between the individual and unhelpful thoughts, reducing the power and negative impact unhelpful cognitions have on emotions and behaviours.
“Defusion is a defining component of psychological flexibility that aims to create distance between the individual and unhelpful thoughts, reducing the power (and negative impact) unhelpful cognitions have on emotions and behaviours (Assaz et al., 2023).”
From Integrating Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) with Psychological Skills Training (PST): a case study (2025) · cites this paper as Assaz et al., 2023
In “Conceptualization Evaluation and Future Research Directions” (page unavailable), the authors describe defusion as reducing thoughts’ control over behavior and list spatial distancing between self and thoughts as one possible pathway. This supports the behavioral part of the paraphrase, but presents distancing as one pathway rather than the general aim of defusion; the cited passages do not establish a reduced impact on emotions. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredACT facilitates cognitive defusion and acceptance of fear-of-cancer-recurrence-related emotions rather than attempting to alter or suppress them.
“By encouraging patients to maintain awareness of changes in their thoughts, moods, physical sensations, and behaviors, ACT facilitates cognitive defusion and acceptance of FCR-related emotions, rather than attempting to alter or suppress them (Assaz et al., 2023).”
From Acceptance and commitment therapy effectiveness for fear of cancer recurrence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. (2025) · cites this paper as Assaz et al., 2023
In “Cognitive Defusion as an Outcome” (page unavailable), the paper describes ACT defusion as changing how people relate to thoughts and other private events rather than changing their form or frequency. “Procedures to Promote Cognitive Defusion” (page unavailable) also describes exercises for observing thoughts. The paper does not specifically address fear of cancer recurrence or establish that ACT promotes acceptance of FCR-related emotions, so the claim extends its general account to a condition it does not discuss. (LLM, conf=0.85)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredDefusion might be best considered an outcome rather than a procedure or process.
“Although discussed as a procedure, process, and outcome, defusion might be best considered an outcome (Assaz et al., 2023).”
From Integrating Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) with Psychological Skills Training (PST): a case study (2025) · cites this paper as Assaz et al., 2023
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Muñoz-Martínez, A., & Follette, W. C. (2018) · Behavior Analysis Research and Practice · doi:10.1037/bar0000141 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Hayes, S. C. (2022) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2022.01.005 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Uma proposta de definição de comportamento no behaviorismo radical
Lopes, C. E. (2008) · Revista Brasileira de Terapia Comportamental e Cognitiva · doi:10.31505/rbtcc.v10i1.206 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Arbitrarily applicable spatial relational responding
May, R. J., Stewart, I., Baez, L., Freegard, G., & Dymond, S. (2017) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1002/jeab.250 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Temporal and spatial discounting are distinct in humans
Robinson, E. M., Michaelis, K., Thompson, J. C., & Wiener, M. (2019) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2019.04.030 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The vision of a progressive clinical science to guide clinical practice
Kanter, J. W. (2013) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2010.07.006 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Tyndall, I., Papworth, R., Roche, B., & Bennett, M. (2017) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-017-0227-2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationBennett, M. P., Roche, B., Dymond, S., Baeyens, F., Vervliet, B., & Hermans, D. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820943148 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Self-citationKenny, N., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Stewart, I. (2014) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-014-0042-y · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Methods of Conceptual Research in Clinical Behavior Analysis
Ferreira, T. A. D. S., Simões, A. S., Santos, F. M. S., Matos, J. P. A., & Moura, M. C. B. L. (2021) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-020-00411-4 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Effects of coherence on speaker preference and rule-following
Bianchi, P. H., Perez, W. F., Harte, C., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2021) · Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento · doi:10.18761/pac.2021.v12.rft.07 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Quantifying the Empirical Growth of Relational Frame Theory Research: a Cautionary Note
Dymond, S., & May, R. J. (2018) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-018-0278-z · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Direct and derived extinction of avoidance responses in equivalence classes
Boldrin, L. S., & Debert, P. (2020) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-020-00419-w · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Auditory stimulus equivalence and non-arbitrary relations
Stewart, I., & Lavelle, N. (2013) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.11133/j.tpr.2013.63.3.001 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Barnes-Holmes, Y., Barnes-Holmes, D., McEnteggart, C., Dougher, M. J., & Luciano, C. (2020) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-020-00444-9 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Some theoretical notes on spatial discounting
Mallpress, D. E. W. (2021) · Behavioural Processes · doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2021.104355 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Barbero (2014) · doi:10.1016/j · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
2 of the 90 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 2
- Hayes, 2022, Defusion and acceptance as treatment processes in cognitive behavioral therapy, Cognitive and Behavioral Practice
- Martinez-Sanchez, 1996, Interactions of contingencies and instructional history on conditional discrimination, The Psychological Record, 46, 301
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Ong, C. W., Ciarrochi, J., Hofmann, S. G., Karekla, M., & Hayes, S. C. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100734 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“Basic RFT accounts are evolving and as they do middle-level terms continuously change their specific meaning (e.g., Assaz et al., 2022; Hayes et al., 2023).”
BackgroundHayes, S. C., Hofmann, S. G., & Ciarrochi, J. (2023) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2023.07.011 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
A Network Analysis Approach on the Psychological Flexibility/Inflexibility Model
Christodoulou, A., Karekla, M., Costantini, G., & Michaelides, M. P. (2023) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2023.01.002 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Harte, C., Barnes‐Holmes, D., de Rose, J. C. C., Perez, W. F., & de Almeida, J. H. (2022) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-022-00363-w · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, we believe that developing a range of technical interpretations, such as those that we have attempted to provide here, and those provided by others (e.g., Assaz et al., 2018, 2022), will be beneficial to the field.”
BackgroundVargas-Nieto, J. C., Zambrano, D., Montorio, I., & Pineda, L. M. S. (2024) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-024-02321-w · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“This has important practical implications, because the development and implementation of specifically developed clinical strategies may be limited without an accurate understanding of what is intended to be changed through particular clinical strategies (Assaz et al., 2023).”
Embodied and Embedded Mindfulness and Compassion Framework
Khoury, B., Lesage, M., Kasprzyk, A., Sadowski, I., Manova, V., Benchimol-Elkaim, B., Martins, C. D., Rigas, C., & Rej, S. (2025) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-025-02561-4 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
“While the efficacy of this metaphor has not been empirically examined, it is frequently cited within ACT, which has been shown to reduce anxiety and depression symptoms and other targeted outcomes (Assaz et al., 2023; Gloster et al., 2020).”
Assessing Psychological Flexibility in Chronic Illness
Tyndall, I., Vagos, P., Cano, S., Pinto, H., & Trindade, I. A. (2023) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-023-00572-y · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…discussions to enlarge stimulus control and adaptive committed action in chronic illness contexts (Dahl et al., 2004; Rehfeldt & Tyndall, 2022; Zhang et al., 2018; see Assaz et al., 2023, for a detailed discussion of cognitive defusion and interventions designed to enlarge stimulus control).”
BackgroundSelf-citationYuyan, Y., Jiaqi, L., Ting, W., Juan, X., Jinfeng, W., & Jing, L. (2025) · European Journal of Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2025.102862 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Shi, C., Chen, W., Huang, J., & Ren, Z. (2023) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316231186111 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“The four different pathways to cognitive defusion outlined by Assaz et al. (2022) provide a useful framework to implement speci fi c practice.”
BackgroundMcKay, D., & O’Donohue, W. (2023) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2023.07.004 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Al‐Abbadey, M., Tomescu‐Stachie, S., Kaklamanou, D., Jarrett, N., Merwood, A., Tyndall, I. T., & McCracken, L. M. (2025) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12807 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Self-citationVancappel, A., Chkili, R., Eberle, D. J., Maercker, A. R. A., El‐Hage, W., & Bachem, R. (2024) · Clinical Psychology in Europe · doi:10.32872/cpe.11565 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“Psychoeducation about the nature and maladaptive effects of preoccupation and cognitive restructuring or cognitive defusion (Assaz et al., 2023) could be used to address distressing repetitive thoughts.”
BackgroundBelisle, J., Paliliunas, D., Catrone, R. G., Sickman, E., & Ramakrishnan, A. (2024) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-024-00603-2 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
“This sentiment was also echoed by Assaz et al. (2022) when offering a more detailed RFT conceptualization of cognitive defusion within the ACT Hexaflex model.”
Tayyebi, G., Alwan, N. H., Hamed, A. F., Shallal, A. A., Abdulrazzaq, T., & Khayayi, R. (2024) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.18502/ijps.v19i3.15809 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
“The tendencies of avoidance and fusion can heighten psychological anguish and hinder present-moment living (12).”
BackgroundCatagnus, R. M., García, Y., & Zhang, D. X. (2022) · Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s41252-022-00294-2 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Stapleton, A., Stynes, G., Cassidy, S., & McHugh, L. (2023) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2023.06.011 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
West, D. M., Assemi, K., Ragulan, S., & Houmanfar, R. A. (2024) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-024-00950-0 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Wood, S., & Turner, M. J. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1617548 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“Attaching physical properties to thoughts in this way establishes spatial distance between the athlete and their thoughts (Assaz et al., 2023).”
InfluentialRen, Y., Wu, B., Ge, C., Shi, L., Zhang, C., Zhu, M., Zhao, D., & Wang, L. (2025) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afaf069 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
“It involves altering the way individuals relate to their thoughts, encouraging them to perceive thoughts as transient mental events rather than absolute truths [16].”
Introduction to Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
Spencer, S. D., & Levin, M. E. (2025) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2025.02.002 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Symbolic or derived generalization of fear and avoidance in humans: A systematic review
Boldrin, L. S., Quigley, M., & Dymond, S. (2024) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2024.100869 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Williams, J. M., Heath, C., Leightley, D., Murphy, D., & Dymond, S. (2025) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2025.100956 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Araiba, S. (2024) · Perspectives on Behavior Science · doi:10.1007/s40614-024-00396-3 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“Assaz et al. (2023) conducted a review to find the operational definition of cognitive defusion as a procedure (in addition to as process and outcome), but they found no studies that provided a clear definition as they said, “these [procedures or techniques] tend to be experiential exercises and…”
Integrating Psychology Skills Training (PST) with Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)
Wood, S., & Turner, M. J. (2025) · Journal of Sport Psychology in Action · doi:10.1080/21520704.2025.2472341 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
“This shifts the stimulus control from the word’s meaning to their formal properties (e.g., how words sound and feel) (Assaz et al., 2023).”
InfluentialGarcía-Padilla, D., Reyes-Rivera, M.-J., León, D. C. R., Abitbol, P., Cano-Sierra, L., López‐López, W., Çakal, H., & Pineda‐Marín, C. (2025) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/rcp.v34n2.115817 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
“…en direcciones valiosas para cada uno y actuar en pro de dicha dirección (Hayes et al., 2004; Wilson & Soriano, 2014); esto, per-mite a las personas visualizar un futuro, trabajar hacia él, disfrutar y valorar no solo la meta sino el camino que hacia ella (Assaz et al., 2023; Cairns et al., 2019).”
Stapleton, A., Lavelle, J., & McHugh, L. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/j2kpt · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Addressing psychological discomfort with Acceptance and Commitment Coaching
MacKinnon, R., Skews, R., & McIntosh, R. (2025) · The Coaching Psychologist · doi:10.53841/bpstcp.2025.20.3.29 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Cifuentes, C. E. G., Ruiz, F. J., Manrique, K. N. B., Hernández-Bernal, X., Morales, D. M. O., Peña-Vargas, A., Toquica-Orjuela, D. J., & Pérez-Nieves, K. T. (2025) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-025-00634-3 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“This way, when private events have aversive functions, the individual will behave “fused” with them by engaging in some experiential avoidance strategy (Assaz et al., 2023; Ruiz et al., 2023).”
Dalgalarrondo, G. J. D. M. (2022) · doi:10.11606/d.47.2022.tde-31052022-170930 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Soleimani, B., Yazdanbakhsh, K., & Dastbaz, A. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2024.100837
Validation of the Hungarian Version of the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire (CFQ-7)
Szabó-Bartha, A., Eisenbeck, N., Rózsa, S., Szondy, M., & Mészáros, V. (2025) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-025-00583-4
“It can be described as the process by which thoughts about an event merge with the actual event (Assaz et al., 2023; Hayes et al., 1999 ).”
Tyndall, I. T. (2025) · The Coaching Psychologist · doi:10.53841/bpstcp.2025.20.3.3
Self-citationDevelopment and Validation of the Limerence Questionnaire (LQ-11)
Marshall, L., Waldeck, D., Pancani, L., Churchill, S., & Tyndall, I. T. (2025) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941251394980
Self-citationTravma Bilgili Bakım ve Uygulamalarında Üçüncü Kuşak Klinik Yaklaşımların Kullanımı
Pak, M. (2026) · Toplum ve sosyal hizmet(Online)/Toplum ve sosyal hizmet · doi:10.33417/tsh.1727473
Oppo, A., Pasquini, L., Misitano, A., Savoia, A., & Presti, G. (2026) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2026.100999
Gökçen, G., Baltacı, U. B., & Traş, Z. (2026) · Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi · doi:10.57127/kpd.26024438.1814989
Mukba, G. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1872185
“These experiences are conceptually consistent with psychological flexibility, which involves openness to internal experiences and engagement in actions aligned with personally meaningful values (Assaz et al., 2023; Hayes et al., 2006).”
O papel da (In)Flexibilidade Psicológica no Sofrimento Humano: Um Estudo de Caso
Padilha, A. P., Lima, L. P., & Nazar, T. C. G. (2026) · ID on line REVISTA DE PSICOLOGIA · doi:10.14295/idonline.v20i82.4382
Lomas, C. (2026) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-026-09756-3
Silva, H. S. (2026) · Revista de Geopolítica · doi:10.56238/revgeov17n9-019
Akyıldız, B., Kesici, Ş., & Ak, M. (2026) · Journal of Behavioral Education · doi:10.1007/s10864-026-09652-9
Validation of the Malay Version of the Cognitive Fusion Questionnaire-7 (CFQ-7-M)
Soo, C. S. C., Pang, N. T. P., Kamu, A., Ho, C. M., Emiral, M. E., Kassim, M. A. M., Volpe, U., Orsolini, L., & Robinson, F. (2026) · The Open Psychology Journal · doi:10.2174/0118743501489904260906072713
Psychological Flexibility and Moral Conscience: Toward a Catholic Integration
Mower, J. (2026) · Integratus · doi:10.1521/intg.2026.4.3.184
- Authors
- Assaz, D. A., Tyndall, I., Oshiro, C. K. B., & Roche, B.
- Affiliations
- Universidade de São Paulo (BR)
- University of Chichester (GB)
- National University of Ireland, Maynooth (IE)
- Corresponding author
- Assaz, Daniel A.
- Venue
- Behavior Therapy
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2023-11
- Volume
- 54
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1020-1035
- ISSN
- 0005-7894 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W4283319228
- Cited by
- 43
- References
- 90
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 4
- FWCI
- 7.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Behavior Therapy (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- ChiPrints (University of Chichester) (acceptedVersion)
- Maynooth University ePrints and eTheses Archive (Maynooth University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychotherapy Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- cognitive defusion, acceptance and commitment therapy, selective attention, relational coherence, reinforcement, extinction, conceptual analysis
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Psychotherapy, Surveys and Questionnaires, Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
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