The DOI matches its Crossref record; 151 of the 151 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 2 of the 121 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Brain Mechanisms Supporting Flexible Cognition and Behavior in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive flexibility enables appropriate responses to a changing environment and is associated with positive life outcomes. Adolescence, with its increased focus on transitioning to independent living, presents particular challenges for youths with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) who often struggle to behave in a flexible way when faced with challenges. This review focuses on brain mechanisms underlying the development of flexible cognition during adolescence and how these neural systems are affected in ASD. Neuroimaging studies of task switching and set-shifting provide evidence for atypical lateral frontoparietal and midcingulo-insular network activation during cognitive flexibility task performance in individuals with ASD. Recent work also examines how intrinsic brain network dynamics support flexible cognition. These dynamic functional connectivity studies provide evidence for alterations in the number of transitions between brain states, as well as hypervariability of functional connections in adolescents with ASD. Future directions for the field include addressing issues related to measurement of cognitive flexibility using a combination of metrics with ecological and construct validity. Heterogeneity of executive function ability in ASD must also be parsed to determine which individuals will benefit most from targeted training to improve flexibility. The influence of pubertal hormones on brain network development and cognitive maturation in adolescents with ASD is another area requiring further exploration. Finally, the intriguing possibility that bilingualism might be associated with preserved cognitive flexibility in ASD should be further examined. Addressing these open questions will be critical for future translational neuroscience investigations of cognitive and behavioral flexibility in adolescents with ASD.
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In the paper
“While the development of cognitive flexibility is a topic of considerable interest, links between brain network maturation and flexible behaviors are not yet firmly established.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
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In the paper
“Measurement issues still complicate the study of cognitive flexibility in ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
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In the paper
“The studies reviewed here have utilized different subsets from the larger ABIDE datasets, with minimal sample overlap across studies (Table 2).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
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In the paper
“Despite the critical role of cognitive flexibility for supporting adaptive functioning in autism, few functional neuroimaging studies of cognitive flexibility in ASD have been conducted (Table 1).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain activation
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In the paper
“While several methodological issues have yet to be resolved (112), dynamic functional connectivity approaches are already revealing interesting patterns of brain dynamics that distinguish youth with ASD (Table 2).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [112] Lurie, 2020, Questions and controversies in the study of time-varying functional connectivity in resting fMRI, Network Neuroscience source
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In the paper
“Studies of the neural mechanisms underlying the development of flexible cognition and behavior in ASD provide initial evidence for altered brain activation and dynamics in diagnosed individuals.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Conclusion
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In the paper
“As Table 1 and Table 2 demonstrate, very few neuroimaging studies have focused on the adolescent period specifically in ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Consideration of adolescence and puberty
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In the paper
“Cognitive flexibility is important for promoting optimal outcomes during development, including academic achievement and employment success (36).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [36] Diamond, 2011, Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old, Science source
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In the paper
“Neuroimaging studies of task switching and set-shifting provide evidence for atypical lateral frontoparietal and midcingulo-insular network activation during cognitive flexibility task performance in individuals with ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Abstract
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In the paper
“Recent studies examining executive control networks demonstrate changes in network expression and variability with development, interpreted as increased flexibility of frontoparietal brain regions with age (56,57).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 41
- Probably not a substantial claim. 16
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In the paper
“Importantly, not all children with ASD exhibit the same level and profile of EF deficits. While some studies provide evidence of uniform patterns of abilities across EF domains (60,61), others suggest that distinct EF subtypes exist (136).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Neuroimaging of individual differences and heterogeneity
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [60] Dajani, 2016, Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders, Sci Rep sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Split into 2 atoms — 0 confirmed, 2 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.
- Not checked yetcites [61] Baez, 2020, Parsing heterogeneity of executive function in typically and atypically developing children: A conceptual replication and exploration of social function, J Autism Dev Dis source
- Supportedcites [136] Vaidya, 2020, Data-driven identification of subtypes of executive function across typical development, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism spectrum disorders, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
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plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Partly supported
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In the paper
“No studies to date have focused specifically on adolescents with ASD, despite the well-characterized maturation of EF circuitry in typical development (90,91).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [90] Casey, 2015, Beyond simple models of self-control to circuit-based accounts of adolescent behavior, Annu Rev Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [91] Larsen, 2018, Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The task-based fMRI literature has not yet converged on the neural circuitry underlying cognitive flexibility in ASD (89), though atypical L-FPN and M-CIN activation is generally observed.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [89] Zhang, 2020, Executive function in high-functioning autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analysis of fMRI studies, J Autism Dev Disord source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To date, no studies have explicitly explored the link between atypical brain dynamics and cognitive flexibility in ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The data thus far provides evidence for both alterations in the number of transitions between brain states, and hyper-variability of functional connections in adolescents with ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The neural mechanisms associated with successful implementation of this intervention are yet unknown.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Neuroimaging of individual differences and heterogeneity
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Additionally, it is completely unknown how puberty, which marks the beginning of adolescence, influences the development of brain systems underlying cognitive flexibility in autism.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Consideration of adolescence and puberty
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Different aspects of EF such as updating, shifting, and inhibition are thought to be correlated, yet separable (4).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] Miyake, 2012, The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions, Curr Dir Psychol Sci source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“One such measure, the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF), is an informant-report measure developed for parents and teachers to assess EF in 5–18 year-old children (6).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [6] Gioia, 2000, Behavior rating inventory of executive function, Child Neuropsychol source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These dynamic functional connectivity studies provide evidence for alterations in the number of transitions between brain states, as well as hyper-variability of functional connections in adolescents with ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Abstract
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“EF ability and cognitive flexibility can be assessed using informant-report questionnaires, which typically have greater ecological validity, or laboratory-based measures, which can provide greater construct validity(5).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Dang, 2020, Why are self-report and behavioral measures weakly correlated?, Trends Cogn Sci source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Findings from the task-based fMRI literature demonstrate that brain networks involved in EF are in place in children aged 8–14, with the dACC and rAI showing greater activation across more demanding task periods (55).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [55] Engelhardt, 2019, The neural architecture of executive functions is established by middle childhood, Neuroimage source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“It is important to note that informant and self-report measures of real-world EF and laboratory performance-based neuropsychological measures do not always converge. The BRIEF correlates with other questionnaire measures, but not with laboratory-based measures of EF, suggesting that subjective and objective measures may not assess the same underlying constructs (15).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] Toplak, 2013, Practitioner review: do performance-based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct?, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Cognitive flexibility deficits in early life can manifest as difficulties in transitioning to independent living and maintaining employment, and may contribute to the grim outcome that less than 20% of adults with ASD live independently and are fully employed (69).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [69] Anderson, 2014, Prevalence and correlates of postsecondary residential status among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder, Autism source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Flexibility supports the transition to adulthood, which is associated with increased demands including navigation of new social relationships and independent living (37–39).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [37] Bailey, 2007, Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business, Ann N Y Acad Sci source
- Not checked yetcites [38] Burt, 2012, Resilience in the transition to adulthood, Dev Psychopathol source
- Not checked yetcites [39] Kapp, 2011, Transition to adulthood for high-functioning individuals with autism spectrum disorders
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“These regions work in the context of broader EF networks with nodes in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), and superior parietal lobule (SPL) which contribute to working memory (30), motor control (31,32), and attention (33), respectively (see (25) for review) (Figure 1).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [30] Nee, 2018
- Not checked yetcites [31] Hoffstaedter, 2014, The role of anterior midcingulate cortex in cognitive motor control: Evidence from functional connectivity analyses, Hum Brain Mapp source
- Not checked yetcites [32] Margulies, 2019, Network convergence zones in the anterior midcingulate cortex, Handb Clin Neurol source
- Not checked yetcites [33] Wager, 2004, Neuroimaging studies of shifting attention: a meta-analysis, Neuroimage source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“While a majority of those diagnosed with ASD experience difficulties with EF, a great deal of heterogeneity exists with respect to individual levels of impairment (60–62), and EF deficits can improve with age (63).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Dajani, 2016, Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders, Sci Rep source
- Not checked yetcites [61] Baez, 2020, Parsing heterogeneity of executive function in typically and atypically developing children: A conceptual replication and exploration of social function, J Autism Dev Dis source
- Not checked yetcites [62] Brunsdon, 2014, Exploring the “fractionation” of autism at the cognitive level, Autism source
- Not checked yetcites [63] Happe, 2006, Executive function deficits in autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Examining profiles across domains and ages, Brain Cogn source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
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In the paper
“Cognitive flexibility emerges in early life, showing sharp increases between 7–9 years of age, then follows a protracted development throughout young adulthood, becoming largely mature by age 20 (40,41). However, this skill continues to improve throughout adolescence and adulthood, peaking between 21–30 years of age before declining in later life (40,42,43).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [40] Anderson, 2002, Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood, Child Neuropsychol source
- Not checked yetcites [41] Dick, 2014, The development of cognitive flexibility beyond the preschool period: an investigation using a modified Flexible Item Selection Task, J Exp Child Psychol source
- Not checked yetcites [42] Hunter, 2012
- Not checked yetcites [43] Cepeda, 2001, Changes in executive control across the life span: Examination of task-switching performance, Dev Psychol source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite reports of cognitive flexibility deficits in ASD (70,71), particularly in younger children (72,73), there are conflicting notions regarding the extent, nature, etiology, and neurobiology of these deficits (74).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [70] Yerys, 2012, Brief report: Impaired Flexible Item Selection Task (FIST) in school-age children with autism spectrum disorders, J Autism Dev Disord source
- Not checked yetcites [71] Yeung, 2016, Abnormal frontal theta oscillations underlie the cognitive flexibility deficits in children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders, Neuropsychology source
- Not checked yetcites [72] van den Bergh, 2014, Age related differences of executive functioning problems in everyday life of children and adolescents in the autism spectrum, J Autism Dev Disord source
- Not checked yetcites [73] Russo, 2007, Deconstructing executive deficits among persons with autism: implications for cognitive neuroscience, Brain Cogn source
- Not checked yetcites [74] Geurts, 2009, The paradox of cognitive flexibility in autism, Trends Cogn Sci source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“On a range of EFs including attentional control, goal setting, and cognitive flexibility, little differentiation was observed between adolescents (age 7–16) with frontal lesions and those with extra-frontal lesions, suggesting that adolescents utilize more distributed brain networks for executive skills than adults (49).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [49] Jacobs, 2011, Are executive skills primarily mediated by the prefrontal cortex in childhood? Examination of focal brain lesions in childhood, Cortex source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Reduced frontal lobe contributions are thought to underlie immature control processes in children, who activate posterior but not prefrontal regions during EF tasks (48).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [48] Bunge, 2002, Immature frontal lobe contributions to cognitive control in children: evidence from fMRI, Neuron source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“the dorsal anterior insula (dAI), which detects behaviorally-relevant stimuli and coordinates dynamic switches between brain networks (29).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] Uddin, 2015, Salience processing and insular cortical function and dysfunction, Nat Rev Neurosci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Diffusion imaging studies examining structural connectivity in 8–22 year-olds support the network segregation-with-age story, and further link this neurodevelopmental process with enhanced EF with age (52).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [52] Baum, 2017, Modular segregation of structural brain networks supports the development of executive function in youth, Curr Biol source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A recent study of over 2000 9–10 year olds from the ABCD dataset found that while individual differences in general cognitive ability could be predicted from functional connectivity patterns, whole brain connectomes could not reliably predict individual differences in flexibility (58).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Brain network maturation underlying the development of cognitive flexibility
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [58] Sripada, 2019, Prediction of neurocognition in youth from resting state fMRI [published online ahead of print Aug 19], Mol Psychiatry
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In a meta-analysis, broad impairments across multiple EF domains were observed in children and adolescents with ASD assessed using neuropsychological measures. Deficits in cognitive flexibility decreased with age, and were observed in those with and without comorbid attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (64).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [64] Lai, 2017, Meta-analysis of neuropsychological measures of executive functioning in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder, Autism Res source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another meta-analysis including psychometric, experimental, and questionnaire-based measures of EF and a wider age range of participants also reported broad dysfunction in ASD that is relatively stable across development. Here, effect sizes were found to be largest for studies using the BRIEF questionnaire (65).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [65] Demetriou, 2018, Autism spectrum disorders: A meta-analysis of executive function, Mol Psychiatry source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“More generally, self-report and behavioral measures of the same construct are only weakly correlated, possibly due to the fact that behavioral measures tap responses during highly structured situations and typically index maximal performance, whereas self-report assesses how individuals behave across unstructured real-life situations (5).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility: Assessment and neural mechanisms
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Dang, 2020, Why are self-report and behavioral measures weakly correlated?, Trends Cogn Sci source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Although individuals with ASD appear behaviorally rigid in daily activities, neuropsychological and laboratory-based measures of cognitive flexibility provide mixed results with respect to patterns of EF deficits (74).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [74] Geurts, 2009, The paradox of cognitive flexibility in autism, Trends Cogn Sci source
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Performance-based measures such as the WCST can hone in on specific cognitive constructs (132), whereas more ecologically-valid measures such as the BRIEF are sensitive indices of real-world behaviors (6) but may be subject to reporter bias.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The rAI has been posited to be a locus of dysfunction in ASD (86), and functional and effective connectivity of this region and the broader M-CIN is associated with symptom severity in the domain of RRBs (87,88).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [86] Uddin, 2009, The anterior insula in autism: under-connected and under-examined, Neurosci Biobehav Rev source
- Not checked yetcites [87] Uddin, 2015, Brain state differentiation and behavioral inflexibility in autism, Cereb Cortex source
- Not checked yetcites [88] Uddin, 2013, Salience network–based classification and prediction of symptom severity in children with autism, JAMA Psychiatry source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Adolescence is a time of dramatic physical, emotional, and social change, and represents a particularly vulnerable developmental period for individuals with ASD.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Focusing on functional connectivity variance in 6–36 year-olds within ABIDE, greater variance of widespread long-range dynamic functional connections in ASD was reported, and linked with symptom severity indexed by the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) (118).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [118] Chen, 2017, Intrinsic functional connectivity variance and state-specific under-connectivity in autism, Hum Brain Mapp source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Time-varying (but not static) functional connectivity of the M-CIN (109), as well as dynamics between the default mode/medial frontoparietal network (M-FPN) and L-FPN (110), has been shown to predict individual differences in cognitive flexibility.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [109] Chen, 2016, Distinct global brain dynamics and spatiotemporal organization of the salience network, PLoS Biol source
- Not checked yetcites [110] Douw, 2016, State-dependent variability of dynamic functional connectivity between frontoparietal and default networks relates to cognitive flexibility, Neuroscience source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Older adults who performed more poorly on a battery of cognitive tests exhibited greater frequency of switching between dynamic brain states, whereas high performers exhibited a tendency to be in a state characterized by global coherence (108).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [108] Cabral, 2017, Cognitive performance in healthy older adults relates to spontaneous switching between states of functional connectivity during rest, Sci Rep source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Shafritz and colleagues found reduced activation in frontal, striatal, and parietal regions during shifting trials in young adults with ASD. They also reported a negative correlation between severity of RRBs and anterior cingulate and posterior parietal activation (83).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain activation
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [83] Shafritz, 2008, The neural circuitry mediating shifts in behavioral response and cognitive set in autism, Biol Psychiatry source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Another study using the entire available ABIDE sample (ages 6–58) found evidence for decreased state transitions in ASD (116). This finding of reduced transitions between brain states has been replicated in adults with autism (117).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [116] Lacy N de, 2017, Disruption to control network function correlates with altered dynamic connectivity in the wider autism spectrum, Neuroimage Clin source
- Not checked yetcites [117] Watanabe, 2017, Brain network dynamics in high-functioning individuals with autism, Nat Commun source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Young adults with ASD are at increased risk for poor health outcomes, social isolation, financial adversity, and institutionalization (77).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [77] Bennett, 2018, Autism spectrum disorder and transition-aged youth, Curr Psychiatry Rep source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Increased sample inhomogeneity due to data pooling across sites can introduce biases that must be considered.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Neural substrates of cognitive flexibility in autism: Brain dynamics
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The Flexibility Scale, based on data collected from 300 6–17 year olds, is an informant report that densely samples cognitive aspects of flexibility in everyday settings and has been shown to discriminate participants with ASD and controls.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [133] Strang, 2017, The flexibility scale: Development and preliminary validation of a cognitive flexibility measure in children with autism spectrum disorders, J Autism Dev Disord source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“During this period of transition to adulthood, youth with ASD often desire independent living, employment, and social relationships, all of which can be challenging for them to achieve when dealing with persistent social, behavioral, and language deficits (75).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [75] Ballaban-Gil, 1996, Longitudinal examination of the behavioral, language, and social changes in a population of adolescents and young adults with autistic disorder, Pediatr Neurol source
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cognitive flexibility deficits can exacerbate this difficult transition period, whereas relative sparing of flexibility may ameliorate some of the challenges typically encountered during adolescence.”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Measures with high reliability such as informant- or self-report may better predict individual differences in real-life outcomes, whereas behavioral measures that are sensitive to within-person experimental manipulations may be important for studying processes that underlie task performance (5).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] Dang, 2020, Why are self-report and behavioral measures weakly correlated?, Trends Cogn Sci source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The “two-hit” conceptual model of autism posits that early alterations in neurodevelopment lead to a “first hit”, while pubertal hormones, neural reorganization, and increasing social demands function as a “second hit” during adolescence that affects adaptive functioning and transitioning to adult roles (78).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Cognitive flexibility deficits in autism: The importance of adolescence
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [78] Picci, 2015, A two-hit model of autism: Adolescence as the second hit, Clin Psychol Sci source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Exploratory factor analysis revealed evidence for five factors related to Routines/Rituals, Transitions/Change, Special Interests, Social Flexibility, and Generativity, and the scale demonstrated convergent and divergent validity with comparative domains in other measures including the ‘shift’ subscale of the BRIEF and D-KEFS performance (133).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Ecological validity and measurement
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [133] Strang, 2017, The flexibility scale: Development and preliminary validation of a cognitive flexibility measure in children with autism spectrum disorders, J Autism Dev Disord source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The bilingual advantage refers to the phenomenon that individuals who speak two languages fluently often perform better on tasks of EF than monolingual individuals (142, but see 143).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Alternative approaches for bolstering cognitive flexibility in ASD
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Despite the potential advantages that bilingualism may confer for EF, clinical practitioners commonly advise against providing children with developmental disabilities a bilingual environment (144), believing that concentrating on one language will better support language development (145).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Alternative approaches for bolstering cognitive flexibility in ASD
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [144] Drysdale, 2015, Children with autism spectrum disorder from bilingual families: A systematic review, Rev J Autism Dev Disord source
- Not checked yetcites [145] Moore, 2006, Working with linguistically diverse families in early intervention: Misconceptions and missed opportunities, Semin Speech Lang source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Dissociable effects of pubertal hormones and age on the adolescent brain have been documented, suggesting that pubertal stage may be a better predictor of cognitive and behavioral maturity than chronological age (140).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Consideration of adolescence and puberty
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [140] Galvan, 2012, Considerations for imaging the adolescent brain, Dev Cogn Neurosci source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“and has been shown to be effective for improving classroom behavior, flexibility and problem-solving in children with ASD (135).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Neuroimaging of individual differences and heterogeneity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [135] Kenworthy, 2014, Randomized controlled effectiveness trial of executive function intervention for children on the autism spectrum, J Child Psychol Psychiatry source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Co-occurring conditions that are associated with cognitive inflexibility have also not been adequately considered, despite initial evidence that EF impairment is more severe in children with comorbid ASD and ADHD (60).”
§ Brain mechanisms supporting flexible cognition and behavior in adolescents with autism spectrum disorder > Outstanding Issues and Future Directions > Neuroimaging of individual differences and heterogeneity
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [60] Dajani, 2016, Heterogeneity of executive functions among comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders, Sci Rep source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“A recent review of neural mechanisms underlying cognitive and behavioural flexibility in autism additionally points to atypical patterns of L-FPN and M-CIN activation in response to task switching and set-shifting72.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [72]
In the citing paper
“Measurement issues complicate the assessment of flexibility deficits and their neural bases in ASD and ADHD, as different combinations of laboratory-based measures, neuropsychological tests and informant-report questionnaires have been used across studies72.”
From Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations (2021) · cites this paper as [72]
Citations
Cites
1 retracted
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Cited by
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Cognitive and behavioural flexibility: Neural mechanisms and clinical considerations
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Self-citationAnterior insula as a gatekeeper of executive control
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What have we really learned from functional connectivity in clinical populations?
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Self-citationBrain Dynamics Underlying Cognitive Flexibility Across the Lifespan
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“No Way Out Except From External Intervention”: First-Hand Accounts of Autistic Inertia
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“…(e.g. working memory, inhibition, or planning) often impair the ability to cope with daily hassles and reach long-term goals (Bednarz et al., 2020; Uddin, 2021; Wallace et al., 2016) and affect essential life areas, such as social relationships, work, and independent living (Bishop-Fitzpatrick et…”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Uddin, L. Q.
- Affiliations
- University of Miami (US)
- Corresponding author
- Uddin, Lucina Q.
- ORCID
- Uddin, Lucina Q.
- Venue
- Biological Psychiatry
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2021-01
- Volume
- 89
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 172-183
- ISSN
- 0006-3223 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC7677208
- OpenAlex
- W3028447440
- Cited by
- 116
- References
- 150
- Citations by year
- 2026: 16 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 16 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 14
- FWCI
- 1.99
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Biological Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research
- University of Miami
- National Institute of Mental Health
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Functional Brain Connectivity Studies
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, cognitive flexibility, adolescents, task switching, set-shifting, frontoparietal network, dynamic functional connectivity, executive function, pubertal hormones, bilingualism, behavioral flexibility
- MeSH terms
- Autism Spectrum Disorder, Adolescent, Brain, Brain Mapping, Cognition, Humans, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Executive Function
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