Pathophysiologic relationship between Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, and cardiovascular risk: A review and synthesis
Open accessAbstract
As the population ages due to demographic trends and gains in life expectancy, the incidence and prevalence of dementia increases, and the need to understand the etiology and pathogenesis of dementia becomes ever more urgent. Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, is a complex disease, the mechanisms of which are poorly understood. The more we learn about AD, the more questions are raised about our current conceptual models of disease. In the absence of a cure or the means by which to slow disease progress, it may be prudent to apply our current knowledge of the intersection between AD, cardiovascular disease, and cerebrovascular disease to foster efforts to delay or slow the onset of AD. This review discusses our current understanding of the epidemiology, genetics, and pathophysiology of AD, the intersection between AD and vascular causes of dementia, and proposes future directions for research and prevention.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
There is a positive epidemiological correlation between Alzheimer's disease and cardiometabolic traits.
“Studies have consistently found a positive epidemiological correlation between Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cardiometabolic traits, yet the biological mechanisms behind this correlation is not well understood [1–4].”
From Multi-trait association studies discover pleiotropic loci between Alzheimer’s disease and cardiometabolic traits (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
The biological mechanisms behind the positive epidemiological correlation between Alzheimer's disease and cardiometabolic traits are not well understood.
“Studies have consistently found a positive epidemiological correlation between Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and cardiometabolic traits, yet the biological mechanisms behind this correlation is not well understood [1–4].”
From Multi-trait association studies discover pleiotropic loci between Alzheimer’s disease and cardiometabolic traits (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
McKhann, G. M., Knopman, D. S., Chertkow, H., Hyman, B. T., Jack, C. R., Kawas, C. H., Klunk, W. E., Koroshetz, W. J., Manly, J. J., Mayeux, R., et al. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005 · Cited by 18,657 · see citing works
Albert, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., et al. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.008 · Cited by 10,152 · see citing works
Self-citationNeuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease
Heneka, M. T., Carson, M. J., Khoury, J. E., Landreth, G. E., Brosseron, F., Feinstein, D. L., Jacobs, A. H., Wyss-Coray, T., Vitorica, J., Ransohoff, R. M., et al. (2015) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(15)70016-5 · Cited by 6,226 · see citing works
2016 Alzheimer's disease facts and figures
Alzheimer's Association (2016) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.03.001 · Cited by 5,069 · see citing works
Gorelick, P. B., Scuteri, A., Black, S. E., DeCarli, C., Greenberg, S. M., Iadecola, C., Launer, L. J., Laurent, S., Lopez, O. L., Nyenhuis, D., et al. (2011) · Stroke · doi:10.1161/str.0b013e3182299496 · Cited by 3,811 · see citing works
Alzheimer's Disease and Senile Dementia: Loss of Neurons in the Basal Forebrain
Whitehouse, P., Price, D., Struble, R., Clark, A., Coyle, J., & DeLong, M. R. (1982) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7058341 · Cited by 3,627 · see citing works
Hyman, B. T., Phelps, C. H., Beach, T. G., Bigio, E. H., Cairns, N. J., Carrillo, M. C., Dickson, D. W., Duyckaerts, C., Frosch, M. P., Masliah, E., et al. (2012) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.10.007 · Cited by 3,092 · see citing works
Alzheimer disease in the United States (2010–2050) estimated using the 2010 census
Hebert, L. E., Weuve, J., Scherr, P. A., & Evans, D. A. (2013) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e31828726f5 · Cited by 2,642 · see citing works
The pathophysiology of cigarette smoking and cardiovascular disease
Ambrose, J. A., & Barua, R. S. (2004) · Journal of the American College of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2003.12.047 · Cited by 2,394 · see citing works
Neurovascular regulation in the normal brain and in Alzheimer's disease
Iadecola, C. (2004) · Nature Reviews Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn1387 · Cited by 2,213 · see citing works
Aerobic Exercise Training Increases Brain Volume in Aging Humans
Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., Elavsky, S., Marquez, D. X., Hu, L., & Kramer, A. F. (2006) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences · doi:10.1093/gerona/61.11.1166 · Cited by 2,134 · see citing works
Jack, C. R., Albert, M. S., Knopman, D. S., McKhann, G. M., Sperling, R. A., Carrillo, M. C., Thies, B., & Phelps, C. H. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.004 · Cited by 2,042 · see citing works
Protective effect of apolipoprotein E type 2 allele for late onset Alzheimer disease
Corder, E. H., Saunders, A. M., Risch, N. J., Strittmatter, W. J., Schmechel, D. E., Gaskell, P. C., Rimmler, J. B., Locke, P. A., Conneally, P. M., Schmader, K. E., et al. (1994) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng0694-180 · Cited by 1,920 · see citing works
Baumgart, M., Snyder, H. M., Carrillo, M. C., Fazio, S., Kim, H., & Johns, H. (2015) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2015.05.016 · Cited by 1,660 · see citing works
McDonald's Blood Flow in Arteries: Theoretical, Experimental and Clinical Principles
Vlachopoulos, C., O'Rourke, M., & Nichols, W. W. (2011) · doi:10.1201/b13568 · Cited by 1,613 · see citing works
Snowdon, D. A. (1997) · JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540340047031 · Cited by 1,590 · see citing works
MCGEER, P., & MCGEER, E. (1995) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/0165-0173(95)00011-9 · Cited by 1,287 · see citing works
A general cardiovascular risk profile: The Framingham study
Kannel, W. B., McGee, D., & Gordon, T. (1976) · The American Journal of Cardiology · doi:10.1016/0002-9149(76)90061-8 · Cited by 1,189 · see citing works
Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Controlled Trial
Baker, L. D., Frank, L. L., Foster-Schubert, K., Green, P. S., Wilkinson, C. W., McTiernan, A., Plymate, S. R., Fishel, M. A., Watson, G. S., Cholerton, B. A., et al. (2010) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneurol.2009.307 · Cited by 1,171 · see citing works
MIND diet slows cognitive decline with aging
Morris, M. C., Tangney, C. C., Wang, Y., Sacks, F. M., Barnes, L. L., Bennett, D. A., & Aggarwal, N. T. (2015) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2015.04.011 · Cited by 1,115 · see citing works
Cerebral microvascular pathology in aging and Alzheimer's disease
Farkas, E., & Luiten, P. G. M. (2001) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0301-0082(00)00068-x · Cited by 1,102 · see citing works
Physical Activity and Reduced Risk of Cardiovascular Events: Potential Mediating Mechanisms
Mora, S., Cook, N., Buring, J. E., Ridker, P. M., & Lee, I.-M. (2007) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/circulationaha.107.729939 · Cited by 1,000 · see citing works
Lack of apolipoprotein E dramatically reduces amyloid β-peptide deposition
Bales, K. R., Verina, T., Dodel, R. C., Du, Y., Altstiel, L., Bender, M., Hyslop, P., Johnstone, E. M., Little, S. P., Cummins, D. J., et al. (1997) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/ng1197-263 · Cited by 830 · see citing works
Meta-analysis of Alzheimer’s disease risk with obesity, diabetes, and related disorders
Profenno, L. A., Porsteinsson, A. P., & Faraone, S. V. (2010) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.02.013 · Cited by 718 · see citing works
Amyloid cascade hypothesis: Pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies in Alzheimer's disease
Barage, S. H., & Sonawane, K. D. (2015) · Neuropeptides · doi:10.1016/j.npep.2015.06.008 · Cited by 579 · see citing works
Cerebral infarctions and the likelihood of dementia from Alzheimer disease pathology
Schneider, J. A., Wilson, R. S., Bienias, J. L., Evans, D. A., & Bennett, D. A. (2004) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000118211.78503.f5 · Cited by 436 · see citing works
Body Mass Index in Midlife and Risk of Alzheimer Disease and Vascular Dementia
Whitmer, R., Gunderson, E., Quesenberry, C., Zhou, J., & Yaffe, K. (2007) · Current Alzheimer Research · doi:10.2174/156720507780362047 · Cited by 430 · see citing works
High total cholesterol levels in late life associated with a reduced risk of dementia
Mielke, M. M., Zandi, P. P., Sjögren, M., Gustafson, D., Östling, S., Steen, B., & Skoog, I. (2005) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000161870.78572.a5 · Cited by 411 · see citing works
Vitamin B<sub>12</sub>, Folate, and Homocysteine in Depression: The Rotterdam Study
Tiemeier, H., van Tuijl, H. R., Hofman, A., Meijer, J., Kiliaan, A. J., & Breteler, M. M. B. (2002) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.12.2099 · Cited by 408 · see citing works
Sink, K. M., Espeland, M. A., Castro, C. M., Church, T., Cohen, R., Dodson, J. A., Guralnik, J., Hendrie, H. C., Jennings, J., Katula, J., et al. (2015) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.2015.9617 · Cited by 402 · see citing works
Grudzien, A., Shaw, P., Weintraub, S., Bigio, E., Mash, D. C., & Mesulam, M. M. (2007) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2006.02.007 · Cited by 396 · see citing works
Distinguishing Alzheimer’s disease from other major forms of dementia
Karantzoulis, S., & Galvin, J. E. (2011) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/ern.11.155 · Cited by 385 · see citing works
Cruchaga, C., Chakraverty, S., Mayo, K., Vallania, F. L. M., Mitra, R. D., Faber, K., Williamson, J., Bird, T., Diaz-Arrastia, R., Foroud, T. M., et al. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031039 · Cited by 320 · see citing works
Luchsinger, J. A., Perez, T., Chang, H., Mehta, P., Steffener, J., Pradabhan, G., Ichise, M., Manly, J., Devanand, D. P., & Bagiella, E. (2016) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-150493 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Altered morphology and 3D architecture of brain vasculature in a mouse model for Alzheimer's disease
Meyer, E. P., Ulmann-Schuler, A., Staufenbiel, M., & Krucker, T. (2008) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0709788105 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Rumawas, M. E., Meigs, J. B., Dwyer, J. T., McKeown, N. M., & Jacques, P. F. (2009) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.27908 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Wei, Y., Zhang, J. (., Li, Z., Gow, A., Chung, K. F., Hu, M., Sun, Z., Zeng, L., Zhu, T., Jia, G., et al. (2016) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.201500142 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
Power, M. C., Weuve, J., Gagne, J. J., McQueen, M. B., Viswanathan, A., & Blacker, D. (2011) · Epidemiology · doi:10.1097/ede.0b013e31822708b5 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Dregan, A., Stewart, R., & Gulliford, M. C. (2013) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afs166 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Statins for the prevention of dementia
McGuinness, B., Craig, D., Bullock, R., & Passmore, P. (2009) · Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1002/14651858.cd003160.pub2 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
The role of neuronal signaling in controlling cerebral blood flow
DRAKE, C., & IADECOLA, C. (2007) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2006.08.002 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Age of onset of hypertension and risk of dementia in the oldest‐old: The 90+ Study
Corrada, M. M., Hayden, K. M., Paganini-Hill, A., Bullain, S. S., DeMoss, J., Aguirre, C., Brookmeyer, R., & Kawas, C. H. (2017) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.09.007 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Association between genetic traits for immune-mediated diseases and Alzheimer disease
Yokoyama, J. S., Wang, Y., Schork, A. J., Thompson, W. K., Karch, C. M., Cruchaga, C., McEvoy, L. K., Witoelar, A., Chen, C.-H., Holland, D., et al. (2016) · JAMA Neurology · doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2016.0150 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Vascular risk factors and cognitive impairment in a stroke-free cohort
Unverzagt, F. W., McClure, L. A., Wadley, V. G., Jenny, N. S., Go, R. C., Cushman, M., Kissela, B. M., Kelley, B. J., Kennedy, R., Moy, C. S., et al. (2011) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0b013e318236ef23 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
ApoE Deficiency Compromises the Blood Brain Barrier Especially After Injury
Methia, N., André, P., Hafezi-Moghadam, A., Economopoulos, M., Thomas, K. L., & Wagner, D. D. (2001) · Molecular Medicine · doi:10.1007/bf03401973 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
ApoE deficiency leads to a progressive age-dependent blood-brain barrier leakage
Hafezi-Moghadam, A., Thomas, K. L., & Wagner, D. D. (2007) · American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpcell.00563.2005 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Adluru, N., Destiche, D. J., Lu, S. Y.-F., Doran, S. T., Birdsill, A. C., Melah, K. E., Okonkwo, O. C., Alexander, A. L., Dowling, N. M., Johnson, S. C., et al. (2014) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2014.04.008 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Life-course blood pressure in relation to brain volumes
Power, M. C., Schneider, A. L. C., Wruck, L., Griswold, M., Coker, L. H., Alonso, A., Jack, C. R., Knopman, D., Mosley, T. H., & Gottesman, R. F. (2016) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2016.03.012 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Vascular aspects in Alzheimer’s disease
Skoog, I. (2000) · Advances in Dementia Research · doi:10.1007/978-3-7091-6781-6_6 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Antihypertensive Medication Use and Incident Alzheimer Disease: The Cache County Study
Khachaturian, A. S. (2006) · Archives of Neurology · doi:10.1001/archneur.63.5.noc60013 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Research works printed but not linked: 234
- [1]Oeppen J. Vaupel J.W. Broken limits to life expectancy Science 296 2002 1029 1031 12004104
- [2]Christensen K. Doblhammer G. Rau R. Vaupel J.W. Ageing populations: the challenges ahead Lancet 374 2009 11196 11208 PMC2810516 19801098
- [5]van Norden A.G.W. van Dijk E.J. de Laat K.F. Scheltens P. OldeRikkert M.G.M. de Leeuw F.E. Dementia: Alzheimer pathology and vascular factors: From mutually exclusive to interaction Biochim Biophys Acta 1822 2012 340 349 21777675
- [6]Au R. Piers R.J. Lancashire L. Back to the future: Alzheimer’s disease heterogeneity revisited Alzheimer's Dement 1 2015 368 370 PMC4827150 27077132
- [7]Nygaard H.B. Current and emerging therapies for Alzheimer’s Disease Clin Ther 35 2013 1480 1489 24139420
- [10]Arvanitakis Z. Grodstein F. Bienias J.L. Schneider J.A. Wilson R.S. Kelly J.F. Relation of NSAIDs to incident AD, change in cognitive function, and AD pathology Neurol 70 2008 2219 2225 18519870
- [11]Leoutsakos J.M.S. Muthen B.O. Breitner J.C.S. Lyketsos C.G. Effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug treatments on cognitive decline vary by phase of pre-clinical Alzheimer disease: findings from the randomized controlled Alzheimer's Disease Anti-inflammatory Prevention Trial Geriatr Psychiatry 27 2012 364 374 PMC3208130 21560159
- [12]Cummings J.L. Vinters H.V. Cole G.M. Khachaturian Z.S. Etiologies, pathophysiology, cognitive reserve, and treatment opportunities Neurol 51 1998 2 17 9674758
- [13]Henley D.B. Sundell K.L. Sethuraman G. Siemers E.R. Safety profile of Alzheimer’s disease populations in Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative and other 18-month studies Alzheimers Dement 8 2012 407 416 22138370
- [15]Van Broeckhoven C. Molecular genetics of Alzheimer disease: identification of genes and gene mutations Eur Neurol 35 1995 8 19 7737252
- [16]Goate A. ChartierHarlin M. Mullan M. Brown J. Crawford F. Fidani L. Segregation of a missense mutation in the amyloid precursor protein gene with familial Alzheimer's disease Nature 349 1991 704 706 1671712
- [17]Sherrington R. Rogaev E.I. Liang Y. Rogaeva E.A. Levasque G. Ikeda M. Cloning of a gene bearing mis-sense mutations in early-onset familial Alzheimer's disease Nature 375 1995 754 760 7596406
- [18]Levy-Lahad E. Wasco W. Poorkaj P. Romano D.M. Oshima J. Pettingell W.H. Candidate gene for the chromosome 1 familial Alzheimer's disease locus Science 269 1995 973 977 7638622
- [19]Rogaev E.I. Sherrington R. Rogeava E.A. Levesque G. Ikeda M. Liang Y. Familial Alzheimer's disease in kindreds with missense mutations in a gene on chromosome 1 related to the Alzheimer's disease type 3 gene Nature 376 1995 775 778 7651536
- [20]Hardy J. Amyloid, the presenilins and Alzheimer disease Trends Neurosci 20 1997 154 159 9106355
- [22]Lord J. Lu A.J. Cruchaga C. Identification of rare variants in Alzheimer's disease Front Genet 5 2014 369 25389433 PMC4211559
- [24]Corder E.H. Saunders A.M. Strittmatter W.J. Schmechel D.E. Gaskell P.C. Small G.W. Gene dose of apolipoprotein E type 4 allele and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in late onset families Science 261 1993 921 923 8346443
- [27]Wang C. Yu J.T. Wang H.F. Jiang T. Tan C.C. Meng X.F. Meta-analysis of peripheral blood apolipoprotein E levels in Alzheimer's disease PLoS One 9 2014 e89041 24558469 PMC3928366
- [28]Rasmussen K.L. Tybjaerg-Hansen A. Nordestgaard B.G. Frikke-Schmidt R. Plasma levels of apolipoprotein E and risk of dementia in the general population Ann Neurol 77 2015 301 311 25469919
- [29]Mcllroy S.P. Dynan K.B. Lawson J.T. Patterson C.C. Passmore A.P. Moderate elevated plasma homocysteine, Methylenetrtrahydrofolate Reductase Genotype, and Risk for Stroke, Vascular Dementia, and Alzheimer Disease in Northern Ireland Stroke 33 2002 2351 2356 12364720
- [30]Mansoori N. Tripathi M. Luthra K. Alam R. Lakshmy R. Sharma S. MTHFR (677 and 1298) and IL-6-174 G/C genes in pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia and their epistatic interaction Neurobiol Aging 33 2012 1003.e1 1003.e8 22015309
- [31]Andreassen O.A. Djurovic S. Thompson W.K. Schork A.J. Kendler K.S. O'Donovan M.C. Improved detection of common variants associated with schizophrenia by leveraging pleiotropy with cardiovascular-disease risk factors Am J Hum Genet 92 2013 197 209 23375658 PMC3567279
- [33]Desikan R.S. Schork A.J. Wang Y. Thompson W.K. Dehghan A. Ridker P.M. Inflammation Working G, International Genomics of Alzheimer's Disease P, DemGene I Polygenic overlap between C-reactive Protein, Plasma Lipids, and Alzheimer disease Circulation 131 2015 2061 2069 25862742 PMC4677995
- [34]Dawber T.R. Meadors G.F. Moore F.E. Jr. Epidemiological approaches to heart disease: the framingham study Am J Public Health Nations Health 41 1951 279 281 14819398 PMC1525365
- [35]Harrison S.L. Ding J. Tang E.Y. Siervo M. Robinson L. Jagger C. Cardiovascular disease risk models and longitudinal changes in cognition: a systematic review PLoS One 9 2014 e114431 25478916 PMC4257686
- [37]Glodzik L. Rusinek H. Brys M. Tsui W.H. Switalski R. Mosconi L. Framingham cardiovascular risk profile correlates with impaired hippocampal and cortical vasoreactivity to hypercapnia J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 31 2011 671 679 20842159 PMC3049521
- [38]Jefferson A.L. Hohman T.J. Liu D. Haj-Hassan S. Gifford K.A. Benson E.M. Adverse vascular risk is related to cognitive decline in older adults J Alzheimers Dis 44 2015 1361 1373 25471188 PMC4336578
- [39]Viticchi G. Falsetti L. Buratti L. Boria C. Luzzi S. Bartolini M. Framingham risk score can predict cognitive decline progression in Alzheimer's disease Neurobiol Aging 36 2015 2940 2945 26279114
- [40]Laughlin G.A. McEvoy L.K. von Mühlen D. Daniels L.B. Kritz-Silverstein D. Bergstrom J. Sex differences in the association of Framingham Cardiac Risk Score with cognitive decline in community-dwelling elders without clinical heart disease Psychosom Med 73 2011 683 689 21949428 PMC3188670
- [42]Kaffashian S. Dugravot A. Elbaz A. Shipley M.J. Sabia S. Kivimäki M. Predicting cognitive decline: a dementia risk score vs. the Framingham vascular risk scores Neurology 80 2013 1300 1306 23547265 PMC3656460
- [44]Kivipelto M. Ngandy T. Laatikainen T. Winblad B. Soininen H. Tuomilehto J. Risk Score for prediction of dementia risk in 20 years among middle aged people: a longitudinal, population-based study Neurology 5 2006 735 741 16914401
- [45]Virta J.J. Heikkilä K. Perola M. Koskenvuo M. Räihä I. Rinne J.O. Midlife cardiovascular risk factors and late cognitive impairment Eur J Epidemiol 28 2013 405 410 23532744
- [46]Exalto L.G. Quesenberry C.P. Barnes D. Kivipelto M. Biessels G.J. Whitmer R.A. Midlife risk score for the prediction of dementia four decades later Alzheimers Dement 10 2014 562 570 24035147
- [47]De Jong G.I. De Vos R.A. Steur E.N. Luiten P.G. Cerebrovascular hypoperfusion: a risk factor for Alzheimer’s disease? Animal model and postmortem human studies Ann Ny Acad Sci 826 1997 56 74 9329681
- [48]Feke G.T. Hyman B.T. Stern R.A. Pasquale L.R. Retinal blood flow in mild cognitive impairment and Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer’s Demen 1 2015 144 151 PMC4876882 27239502
- [51]Santos C.Y. Lim Y.Y. Wu W.C. Polynice S. Schindler R. Maruff P. Resting-State Cardiac Workload is related to both increased neocortical aggregation of β-Amyloid and relative impairment in spatial working memory in Pre-clinical Alzheimer’s disease J Alzheimers Dis 50 2016 127 131 26639961
- [52]Skoog I. Lernfelt B. Landahl S. Palmertz B. Andreasson L.A. Nilsson L. 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia Lancet 347 1996 1141 1145 8609748
- [53]Skoog I. Gustafson D. Update on hypertension and Alzheimer's disease Neurol Res 28 2006 605 611 16945211
- [54]Launer L.J. Ross G.W. Petrovitch H. Masaki K. Foley D. White L.R. Midlife blood pressure and dementia: the Honolulu Asia Aging Study Neurobiol Aging 21 2000 49 55 10794848
- [55]Kivipelto M. Helkala E.L. Laakso M.P. Hanninen T. Hallikainen M. Alhainen K. Midlife vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease in later life: longitudinal, population based study BMJ 322 2001 1447 1451 11408299 PMC32306
- [56]Ruitenberg A. Skoog I. Ott A. Aevarsson O. Witteman J.C. Lernfelt B. Blood pressure and risk of dementia: results from the rotterdam study and the Gothenburg H-70 Study Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 12 2001 33 39 11125239
- [58]Whitmer R.A. Gustafson D.R. Barrett-Connor E. Haan M.N. Gunderson E.P. Yaffe K. Central obesity and increased risk of dementia more than three decades later Neurology 71 2008 1057 1064 18367704
- [61]Yasar S. Xia J. Yao W. Furberg C.D. Xue Q.L. Mercado C.I. Antihypertensive drugs decrease risk of Alzheimer disease: ginkgo evaluation of memory study Neurology 81 2013 896 903 23911756 PMC3885216
- [62]Gelber R.P. Ross G.W. Petrovitch H. Masaki K.H. Launer L.J. White L.R. Antihypertensive medication use and risk of cognitive impairment: the Honolulu-Asia Aging Study Neurology 81 2013 888 895 23911753 PMC3885214
- [63]Soto M.E. Abellan van Kan G. Nourhashemi F. Gillette-Guyonnet S. Cesari M. Cantet C. Angiotestin converting enzyme inhibitors and Alzheimer's disease progression in older adults: results from the Reseau sur la Maladie d'Alzheimer Francais Cohort J Am Ger Soc 61 2013 1482 1484 24000874
- [64]Rosenberg P.B. Mielke M.M. Tschanz J. Cook L. Corcoran C. Hayden K.M. Effects of Cardiovascular Medications on Rate of Functional Decline in Alzheimer Disease Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16 2008 883 892 18978249 PMC2676234
- [65]Verghese J. Lipton R.B. Katz M.J. Hall C.B. Derby C.A. Kuslansky G. Leisure Activities and the Risk of Dementia in the Elderly N Engl J Med 348 2003 2508 2516 12815136
- [66]Nilsson S.E. Read S. Berg S. Johansson B. Melander A. Lindblad U. Low systolic blood pressure is associated with impaired cognitive function in the oldest old: longitudinal observations in a population-based sample 80 years and older Aging Clin Exp Res 19 2007 41 47 17332720
- [67]Qiu C. Von Strauss E. Fastbom J. Winblad B. Fratiglioni L. Low blood pressure and risk of dementia in the Kungsholmen project: a 6-year follow-up study Arch Neurol 60 2003 223 228 12580707
- [68]Kennelly S.P. Lawlor B.A. Kenny R.A. Blood pressure and dementia – a comprehensive review Ther Adv Neurol Disord 2 2009 241 260 21179532 PMC3002634
- [69]Björkhem I. Meaney S. Brain cholesterol: long secret life behind a barrier Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24 2004 806 815 14764421
- [70]Baum L. Wiebusch H. Pang C.P. Roles for lipoprotein lipase in Alzheimer's disease: an association study Microsc Res Tech 50 2000 291 296 10936883
- [71]Blain J.F. Aumont N. Théroux L. Dea D. Poirier J. A polymorphism in lipoprotein lipase affects the severity of Alzheimer's diseasepathophysiology Eur J Neurosci 24 2006 1245 1251 16965549
- [72]Xie C. Wang Z.C. Liu X.F. Yang M.S. The common biological basis for common complex diseases: evidence from lipoprotein lipase gene Eur J Hum Genet 18 2010 3 7 19639021 PMC2987160
- [73]Blain J.F. Poirier J. Cholesterol homeostasis and the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease Expert Rev Neurother 4 2004 823 829 15853509
- [74]Kalaria R.N. Akinyemi R. Ihara M. Does vascular pathology contribute to Alzheimer changes? J Neurol Sci 322 2012 141 147 22884479
- [75]Koudinov A.R. Koudinova N.V. Essential role for cholesterol in synaptic plasticity and neuronal degeneration FASEB J 15 2001 1858 1860 11481254
- [76]Mauch D.H. Nagler K. Schumacher S. Goritz C. Muller E.C. Otto A. CNS synaptogenesis promoted by glia-derived cholesterol Science 294 2001 1354 1357 11701931
- [77]Snowdon D.A. Greiner L.H. Mortimer J.A. Riley K.P. Greiner P.A. Markesberry W.R. Brain infarction and clinical expression of Alzheimer’s disease. The Nun Study JAMA 277 1997 813 817 9052711
- [78]Hofman A. Ott A. Breteler M.M.B. Bots M.L. Slooter A.J. van Harskamp F. Atheriosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer's disease in the Rotterdam study Lancet 349 1997 151 154 9111537
- [79]Eichner J.E. Dunn S.T. Perveen G. Thompson D.M. Stewart K.E. Stroehla B.C. Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and cardiovascular disease: a HuGE review Am J Epidemiol 155 2002 487 495 11882522
- [80]Notkola I.L. Sulkava R. Pekkanen J. Erkinjuntti T. Ehnholm C. Kivinen P. Serum total cholesterol, apolipoprotein E epsilon 4 allele, and Alzheimer's disease Neuroepidemiology 17 1998 14 20 9549720
- [81]Mielke M.M. Zandi P.P. Shao H. Waern M. Ostling S. Guo X. The 32-year relationship between cholesterol and dementia from midlife to late life Neurology 75 2010 1888 1895 21068429 PMC2995387
- [83]Wolozin B. Kellman W. Ruosseau P. Celesia G.G. Siegel G. Decreased prevalence of Alzheimer disease associated with 3-hydroxy-3-metyglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors Arch Neurol 57 2000 1439 1443 11030795
- [84]Li G. Larson E.B. SOnnen J.A. Shofer J.B. Petrie E.C. Schantz A. Statin therapy is associated with reduced neuropathologic changes in Azlheimer’s disease Neurology 69 2007 878 885 17724290
- [85]Jick H. Zornberg G.L. Jick S.S. Seshadri S. Drachman D.A. Statins and the risk of dementia Lancet 11 2000 1627 1631 11089820
- [86]Feldman H.H. Doody R.S. Kivipelto M. Sparks D.L. Waters D.D. Jones R.W. Randomized controlled trial of atorvastatin in mild to moderate Alzheimer disease: LEADe Neurology 74 2010 956 964 20200346
- [88]Biessels G.J. Staekenborg S. Brunner E. Brayne C. Scheltens P. Risk of dementia in diabetes mellitus: a systematic review Lancet Neurol 5 2006 64 74 16361024
- [89]Schilling M.A. Unraveling Alzheimer’s: Making Sense of the Relationship between Diabetes and Alzheimer’s Disease J Alzheimer’s Dis 51 2016 961 977 26967215 PMC4927856
- [90]Carantoni M. Zuliani G. Munari M.R. D’Elia K. Palmieri E. Fellin R. Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia: Relationships with fasting glucose and insulin levels Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord 11 2000 176 178 10765049
- [91]Razay G. Wilcock G.K. Hyperinsulinemia andAlzheimer’s disease Age Ageing 23 1994 396 399 7825486
- [92]Fujisawa Y. Sasaki K. Akiyama K. Increased insulin levels after OGTT load in peripheral blood and cerebrospinal fluid of patients with dementia of Alzheimer type Biol Psychiatry 30 1991 1219 1228 1790263
- [93]Craft S. Baker L.D. Montine T.J. Minoshima S. Watson G.S. Claxton A. Intranasal insulin therapy for Alzheimer disease and amnestic mild cognitive impairment a pilot clinical trial Arch Neurol 69 2012 29 38 21911655 PMC3260944
- [94]Reger M.A. Watson G.S. Green P.S. Wilkinson C.W. Baker L.D. Cholerton B. Intranasal insulin improves cognition and modulates beta-amyloid in early AD Neurology 70 2008 440 448 17942819
- [95]Freiherr J. Hallschmid M. Frey W.H. II Bruenner Y.F. Chapman C.D. Hoelscher C. Intranasal Insulin as a treatment for Alzheimer’s disease: A review of basic research and clinical evidence CNS Drugs 27 2013 505 514 23719722 PMC3709085
- [96]Talbot K. Wang H.-Y. Kazi H. Han L.-Y. Bakshi K.P. Stucky A. Demonstrated brain insulin resistance in Alzheimer’s disease patients is associated with IGF-1 resistance, IRS-1 dysregulation, and cognitive decline J Clin Invest 122 2012 1316 1338 22476197 PMC3314463
- [97]de la Monte S.M. Type 3 diabetes is sporadic Alzheimer's disease: mini-review Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 24 2014 1954 1960 25088942 PMC4444430
- [98]Ahmed S. Mahmood Z. Zahid S. Linking insulin with Alzheimer’s disease: emergence as type III diabetes Neurolog Sci 36 2015 1763 1769 26248483
- [99]Chatterjee S. Peters S.A. Woodward M. Mejia Arango S. Batty G.D. Beckett N. Type 2 Diabetes as a Risk Factor for Dementia in Women Compared With Men: A Pooled Analysis of 2.3 Million People Comprising More Than 100,000 Cases of Dementia Diabetes Care 39 2016 300 307 26681727 PMC4722942
- [100]Ott A. Stolk R.P. van Harskamp F. Pols H.A. Hofman A. Breteler M.M. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia: The Rotterdam Study Neurology 53 1999 1937 1942 10599761
- [101]Xu W.L. von Strauss E. Qiu C.X. Winblad B. Fratiglioni L. Uncontrolled diabetes increases the risk of Alzheimer's disease Diabetologia 52 2009 1031 19280172
- [102]Ahtiluoto S. Diabetes, Alzheimer disease, and vascular dementia: a population-based neuropathologic study Neurology 75 2010 13 20739645
- [103]Huang C.C. Chung C.M. Leu H.B. Lin L.Y. Chiu C.C. Hsu C.Y. Diabetes mellitus and the risk of Alzheimer's disease: a nationwide population-based study PLoS ONE 9 2014 e87095 24489845 PMC3906115
- [104]Luchsinger J.A. Tang M.X. Shea S. Mayeux R. Hyperinsulinemia and risk of Alzheimer disease Neurology 63 2004 1187 1192 15477536
- [106]Roses A.D. Saunders A.M. Lutz M.W. Zhang N. Hariri A.R. Asin K.E. New applications of disease genetics and pharmacogenetics to drug development Curr Opin Pharmacol 14 2014 81 89 24565016
- [107]Claxton A. Baker L.D. Hanson A. Trittschuh E.H. Cholerton B. Morgan A. Long-acting intranasal insulin detemir improves cognition for adults with mild cognitive impairment or early-stage Alzheimer's disease dementia J Alzheimers Dis 44 2015 897 906 25374101
- [108]Novak V. Milberg W. Hao Y. Munshi M. Novak P. Galica A. Enhancement of vasoreactivity and cognition by intranasal insulin in type 2 diabetes Diabetes Care 37 2014 751 759 24101698 PMC3931384
- [109]Hughes T.M. Craft S. The role of insulin in the vascular contributions to age-related dementia Biochim Biophys Acta 1862 2016 983 991 26657615
- [110]Scarmeas N. Luchsinger J.A. Schupf N. Brickman A.M. Cosentino S. Tang M.X. Physical Activity, Diet, and Risk of Alzheimer Disease JAMA 302 2009 627 637 19671904 PMC2765045
- [111]Morris M.C. Tangney C.C. Wang Y. Sacks F.M. Bennett D.A. Aggarwal N.T. MIND diet associated with reduced incidence of Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer Dement 11 2015 1007 1014 PMC4532650 25681666
- [113]Martins I.J. Hone E. Foster J.K. Sünram-Lea S.I. Gnjec A. Fuller S.J. Apolipoprotein E, cholesterol metabolism, diabetes, and the convergence of risk factors for Alzheimer's disease and cardiovascular disease Mol Psychiatry 11 2006 721 736 16786033
- [114]Gustafson D.R. Adiposity and cognitive decline: underlying mechanisms J Alzheimers Dis 30 Suppl 2 2012 S97 S112 22543853
- [115]Elias M.F. Elias P.K. Sullivan L.M. Wolf P.A. D’Agostino R.B. Lower cognitive function in the presence of obesity and hypertension: the Framingham heart study Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 27 2003 260 268 12587008
- [116]Hayden K.M. Zandi P.P. Lyketsos C.G. Khachaturian A.S. Bastian L.A. Charoonruk G. Vascular risk factors for incident Alzheimer disease and vascular dementia: the Cache County study Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 20 2006 93 100 16772744
- [117]Gustafson D. Rothenberg E. Blennow K. Steen B. Skoog I. An 18-year follow-up of overweight and risk of Alzheimer disease Arch Intern Med 163 2003 1524 1528 12860573
- [118]Anstey K.J. Cherbuin N. Budge M. Young J. Body mass index in midlife and late-life as a risk factor for dementia: a meta-analysis of prospective studies Obes Rev 12 2011 e426 e437 21348917
- [120]Luchsinger J.A. Patel B. Tang M.X. Schupf N. Mayeux R. Measures of adiposity and dementia risk in elderly persons Arch Neurol 64 2007 392 398 17353383 PMC1821350
- [122]Luepker R.V. Lakshminarayan K. Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases Oxford textbook Public Health Pract Public Health 3 2009 971 996
- [123]Baker L.D. Frank L.L. Foster-Schubert K. Green P.S. Wilkinson C.W. McTiernan A. Aerobic exercise improves cognition for older adults with glucose intolerance, a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease J Alzheimers Dis 22 2010 569 579 20847403 PMC3049111
- [124]Cotman C.W. Berchtold N.C. Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity Trends Neurosci 25 2002 295 301 12086747
- [125]Scarmeas N. Luchsinger J.A. Schupf N. Brickman A.M. Cosentino S. Tang M.X. Exercise plays a preventive role against Alzheimer's disease J Alzheimers Dis 20 2010 777 783 20182027
- [126]Erickson K.I. Voss M.W. Prakash R.S. Basak C. Szabo A. Chaddock L. Exercise training increases size of hippocampus and improves memory Proc Natl Acad Sci U.S.A 198 2011 3017 3022 PMC3041121 21282661
- [128]Colcombe S.J. Erickson K.I. Raz N. Webb A.G. Cohen N.J. McAuley E. Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 58 2003 176 180 12586857
- [129]Whiteman A. Young D.E. He X. Chen T.C. Wagenaar R.C. Stern C. Interaction between serum BDNF and aerobic fitness predicts recognition memory in healthy young adults Behav Brain Res 259 2014 302 312 24269495 PMC3991014
- [130]Yaffe K. Barnes D. Nevitt M. Lui L.Y. Covinsky K. A prospective study of physical activity and cognitive decline in elderly women: women who walk Arch Intern Med 161 2001 1703 1708 11485502
- [131]Podewils L.J. Guallar E. Kuller L.H. Fried L.P. Lopez O.L. Carlson M. Physical activity, APOE genotype, and dementia risk: findings from the Cardiovascular Health Cognition Study Am J Epidemiol 161 2005 639 651 15781953
- [132]Larson E.B. Wang L. Bowen J.D. McCormick W.C. Teri L. Crane P. Exercise is associated with reduced risk for incident dementia among persons 65 years of age and older Ann Intern Med 144 2006 73 81 16418406
- [134]Papenberg G. Ferencz B. Mangialasche F. Mecocci P. Cecchetti R. Kalpouzos G. Physical activity and inflammation: effects on gray-matter volume and cognitive decline in aging Hum Brain Mapp 37 2016 3462 3473 27159568 PMC6867433
- [135]Groot C. Hooghiemstra A.M. Raijmakers P.G. van Berckel B.N. Scheltens P. Scherder E.J. The effect of physical activity on cognitive function in patients with dementia: A meta-analysis of randomized control trials Ageing Res Rev 25 2016 13 23 26607411
- [137]Espeland M.A. Lipska K. Miller M.E. Rushing J. Cohen R.A. Verghese J. Investigators ftLS Effects of Physical Activity Intervention on Physical and Cognitive Function in Sedentary Adults With and Without Diabetes J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2016 glw179 PMC6075086 27590629
- [138]Demeersman R.E. Heart-rate-variability and aerobic fitness Am Heart J 125 1993 726 731 8438702
- [139]Tulppo M.P. Mäkikallio T.H. Seppänen T. Laukkanen R.T. Huikuri H.V. Vagal modulation of heart rate during exercise: effects of age and physical fitness Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 274 1998 424 429 9486244
- [140]Kemp A.H. Quintana D.S. The relationship between mental and physical health: insights from the study of heart rate variability Int J Psychophysiol 89 2013 288 296 23797149
- [141]Thayer J.F. Yamamoto S.S. Brosschot J.F. The relationship of autonomic imbalance, heart rate variability and cardiovascular disease risk factors Int J Cardiol 141 2010 122 131 19910061
- [142]Dywan J. Mathewson K.J. Choma B.L. Rosenfeld B. Segalowitz S.J. Autonomic and electrophysiological correlates of emotional intensity in older and younger adults Psychophysiology 45 2008 389 397 18221446
- [143]Basile J.N. Bloch M.J. Determining the relative antihypertensive potency and relative cardiovascular risk reduction associated with different thiazide and thiazide-type diuretics JCH 15 2013 359 361 PMC8033913 23730981
- [144]Malacco E. Mancia G. Rappelli A. Menotti A. Zuccaro M.S. Coppini A. Shell Investigators Treatment of isolated systolic hypertension: the SHELL study results Blood Press 12 2013 160 167 12875478
- [145]Jamerson K. Weber M.A. Bakris G.L. Dahlöf B. Pitt B. Shi V. Benazepril plus amlodipine or hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension in high-risk patients N Engl J Med 359 2008 2417 2428 19052124
- [146]Yusuf S. Teo K. Anderson C. Pogue J. Dyal L. Copland I. Effects of the angiotensin–receptor blocker telmisartan on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients intolerant to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors: a randomised controlled trial Lancet 372 2008 1174 1183 18757085
- [147]Tofler G.H. Spinaze M. Shaw E. Buckley T. Therapy for triggered acute risk prevention in subjects at increased cardiovascular risk Am J Cardiol 111 2013 1755 1758 23562382
- [148]Shaw E. Tofler G.H. Buckley T. Bajorek B. Ward M. Therapy for triggered acute risk prevention: a study of feasibility Heart Lung Circ 18 2009 347 352 19410513
- [149]Kendrick J. Shlipak M.G. Targher G. Cook T. Lindenfeld J. Chonchol M. Effect of Lovastatin on primary prevention of cardiovascular events in mild CKD and kidney function loss: a post hoc analysis of the Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study Am J Kid Dis 55 2010 42 49 19932541 PMC2803327
- [150]Tikkanen M.J. Fayyad R. Faergeman O. Olsson A.G. Wun C.C. Laskey R. IDEAL Investigators Effect of intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin on cardiovascular outcomes in coronary heart disease patients with mild-to-moderate baseline elevations in alanine aminotransferase levels Int J Cardiol 168 2013 3846 3852 24001698
- [151]Velentgas P. West W. Cannuscio C.C. Watson D.J. Walker A.M. Cardiovascular risk of selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and other non-aspirin non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safe 15 2006 641 652 16392153
- [152]Roumie C.L. Choma N.N. Kaltenbach L. Mitchel E.F. Arbogast P.G. Griffin M.R. Non-aspirin NSAIDs, cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and risk for cardiovascular events–stroke, acute myocardial infarction, and death from coronary heart disease Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Safe 18 2009 1053 1063 19637402
- [153]Cederholm J. Zethelius B. Nilsson P.M. Eeg-Olofsson K. Eliasson B. Gudbjornsdottir S. Effect of tight control of HbA1c and blood pressure on cardiovascular diseases in type 2 diabetes: an observational study from the Swedish National Diabetes Register (NDR) Diabetes Res Clin Pract 86 2009 74 81 19679369
- [155]Speretta G.F. Silva A.A. Vendramini R.C. Zanesco A. Delbin M.A. Menani J.V. Resistance training prevents the cardiovascular changes caused by high-fat diet Life Sci 146 2016 154 162 26776833
- [157]Dehghan M. Mente A. Teo K.K. Gao P. Sleight P. Dagenais G. Relationship between healthy diet and risk of cardiovascular disease among patients on drug therapies for secondary prevention Circulation 126 2012 2705 2712 23212996
- [159]Luchsinger J.A. Reitz C. Honig L.S. Tang M.X. Shea S. Mayeux R. Aggregation of vascular risk factors and risk of incident Alzheimer disease Neurology 65 2005 545 551 16116114 PMC1619350
- [160]Peters R. Poulter R. Warner J. Beckett N. Burch L. Bulpitt C. Smoking, dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly, a systematic review BMC Geriatr 8 2008 36 19105840 PMC2642819
- [161]Cataldo J.K. Prochaska J.J. Glantz S.A. Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for Alzheimer's Disease: an analysis controlling for tobacco industry affiliation J Alzheimers Dis 19 2010 465 480 20110594 PMC2906761
- [162]Bazzano L.A. He J. Muntner P. Vupputuri S. Whelton P.K. Relationship between cigarette smoking and novel risk factors for cardiovascular disease in the United States Ann Intern Med 138 2003 891 897 12779299
- [163]Hankey G.J. Eikelboom J.W. Homocysteine and vascular disease Lancet 354 1999 407 413 10437885
- [164]Sachdev P.S. Parslow R.A. Lux O. Salonikas C. Wen W. Naidoo D. Relationship of homocysteine, folic acid and vitamin B12 with depression in a middle-aged community sample Psychol Med 35 2005 529 538 15856723
- [165]Seshadri S. Wolf P.A. Beiser A.S. Selhub J. Au R. Jacques P.F. Association of plasma total homocysteine levels with subclinical brain injury: cerebral volumes, white matter hyperintensity, and silent brain infarcts at volumetric magnetic resonance imaging in theFramingham Offspring Study Arch Neurol 65 2008 642 649 18474741 PMC2700952
- [167]Giunta B. Deng J. Jin J. Sadic E. Rum S. Zhou H. Evaluation of how cigarette smoke is a direct risk factor for Alzheimer's disease Technol Innov 14 2012 39 48 22997546 PMC3445032
- [168]Merchant C. Tang M.X. Albert S. Manly J. Stern Y. Mayeux R. The influence of smoking on the risk of Alzheimer's disease Neurology 52 1999 1408 1412 10227626
- [169]Anstey K.J. von Sanden C. Salim A. O'Kearney R. Smoking as a risk factor for dementia and cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies Am J Epidemiol 166 2007 367 378 17573335
- [170]Barnes D.E. The projected impact of risk factor reduction on Alzheimer's disease prevalence Lancet Neurol 10 2011 819 828 21775213 PMC3647614
- [171]Rapp M.A. Schnaider-Beeri M. Grossman H.T. Sano M. Perl D.P. Purohit D.P. Increased hippocampal plaques and tangles in patients with Alzheimer disease with a lifetime history of major depression Arch Gen Psychiatry 63 2006 161 167 16461859
- [172]Meeks T.W. Ropacki S.A. Jest D.V. The neurobiology of neuropsychiatric syndromes in dementia Curr Opin Psychiatry 19 2006 581 586 17012935
- [173]Snyder P.J. Pearn A.M. Historical note on Darwin’s consideration of early-onset dementia in older persons, thirty-six years before Alzheimer’s initial case report Alzheimer Dement 3 2007 137 142 19595928
- [174]Zweig Rm Ross C.A. Hedreen J.C. The neuropathology of aminergic nuclei in Alzheimer’s disease Ann Neurol 24 1988 233 242 3178178
- [175]Zubenko G.S. Moosy J. Kopp U. Neurochemical correlates of major depression in primary dementia Arch Neurol 47 1990 209 214 1689144
- [176]Forstl H. Burns A. Luthert P. Clinical and neuropathological correlates of depression in Alzheimer’s disease Psychol Med 22 1992 877 884 1488485
- [177]Charlson F.J. Stapelberg N.J. Baxter A.J. Whiteford H.A. Should global burden of disease estimates include depression as a risk factor for coronary heart disease? BMC Med 9 2011 47 21539732 PMC3101124
- [178]Elderon L. Whooley M.A. Depression and cardiovascular disease Prog Cardiovasc Dis 55 2013 511 523 23621961
- [179]Panagiotakos D.B. Pitsavos C. Chrysohoou C. Kavouras S. Stefanadis C. The associations between leisure-time physical activity and inflammatory and coagulation markers related to cardiovascular disease: The attica study Prev Med 40 2005 432 437 15530595
- [180]Eastwood M.R. Rifat S.L. Nobbs H. Ruderman J. Mood disorder following cerebrovascular accident Br J Psych 154 1989 195 200 2528388
- [182]Flicker L. Martins R.N. Thomas J. Acres J. Taddei K. Norman P. Homocysteine, Alzheimer genes and proteins and measures of cognition and depression in older men J Alzheimers Dis 6 2004 329 336 15201487
- [183]Alonso R. Pisa D. Rabano A. Carrasco L. Alzheimer’s disease and disseminated mycoses Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 33 2014 1125 1132 24452965
- [184]Pisa D. Alonso R. Rabano A. Rodal I. Carrasco L. Different brain regions are infected with fungi in Alzheimer’s disease Sci Rep 4 2015 15015 PMC4606562 26468932
- [185]Soscia S.J. Kirby J.E. Washicosky K.J. Tucker S.M. Ingelsson M. Hyman B. The Alzheimer's disease-associated Amyloid β-Protein is an Antimicrobial Peptide PLoS One 5 2010 9505 PMC2831066 20209079
- [186]Ciornei C.D. Tapper H. Bjartell A. Sternby N.H. Bodelsson M. Human antimicrobial peptide LL-37 is present in atherosclerotic plaques and induces death of vascular smooth muscle cells: a laboratory study BMC Cardiovasc Disord 6 2006 49 17181861 PMC1764755
- [187]Subasinghe S. Unabia S. Barrow C.J. Mok S.S. Aguilar M.I. Small D.H. Cholesterol is necessary both for the toxic effect of Abeta peptides on vascular smooth muscle cells and for Abeta binding to vascular smooth muscle cell membranes J Neurochem 84 2003 471 479 12558967
- [188]Miklossy J. Emerging roles of pathogens in Alzheimer’s disease Expert Rev Mol Med 13 2011 30 34 21933454
- [189]Santos-Gallego C.G. Badimon J.J. The sum of two evils: pneumonia and myocardial infarction: is platelet activation the missing link? J Am Coll Cardiol 64 2014 1926 1928 25444148
- [191]Mordukhovich I. Coull B. Kloog I. Koutrakis P. Vokonas P. Schwartz J. Exposure to sub-chronic and long-term particulate air pollution and heart rate variability in an elderly cohort: the Normative Aging Study Environ Health 6 2015 87 PMC4636903 26546332
- [192]Brook R.D. Cardiovascular effects of air pollution Clin Sci 115 2008 175 187 18691154
- [193]Wu Y.C. Lin Y.C. Yu H.L. Chen J.H. Chen T.F. Sun Y. Association between air pollutants and dementia risk in the elderly Alzheimer Dement 1 2015 220 228 PMC4876896 27239507
- [194]Bostrom K. Hassler O. A pilot microradiological investigation on the occurrence of calcifications in various arteries of the human body J Gerontol 21 1966 97 102 5901663
- [195]Moody D.M. Brown W.R. Challa V.R. Anderson R.L. Periventricular venous collagenosis: association with leukoaraiosis Radiology 194 1995 469 476 7824728
- [197]Diemer N.H. Double-tracer study of the fine regional blood-brain barrier glucose transfer in the rat by computer-assisted autoradiography J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 5 1985 282 289 3988827
- [198]Grammas P. Sanchez A. Tripathy D. Luo E. Martinez J. Vascular signaling abnormalities in Alzheimer disease Cleve Clin J Med 78 2011 50 53 21972332
- [199]Marchant N.L. Reed B.R. Sanossian N. Madison C.M. Kriger S. Dhada R. The Aging brain and cognition: contribution of vascular injury and Aβ to mild cognitive dysfunction JAMA Neurol 70 2013 488 495 23400560 PMC3771392
- [200]Ikram M. Poels M. van der Lugt A. Hofman A. Krestin G. Breteler M. Cerebral microbleeds are associates with worse cognitive function: The Rotterdam Scan Study Alzheimer Dement 7 2011 296 22262748
- [201]Braaten A.J. Parsons T.D. McCue R. Sellers A. Burns W.J. Neurcognitive differential diagnosis of dementing disease Alzheimer’s dementia, Vascular dementia, Frontotemporal dementia and Major depressive disorder Intern J Neurosci 116 2006 1271 1293 17000529
- [204]Jellinger K.A. Alzheimer disease and cerebrovascular pathology: an update J Neural Transm 109 2002 813 836 12111471
- [205]Chui H.C. Zheng L. Reed B.R. Vinters H.V. Vascular risk factors and Alzheimer's disease: are these risk factors for plaques and tangles or for concomitant vascular pathology that increases the likelihood of dementia? An evidence-based review Alzheimers Res Ther 4 2012 1 22182734 PMC3471388
- [206]Arvanitains Z. Capuano A.W. Leurgans S.E. Bennet D.A. Schneider J.A. Relation of cerebral vessel disease to Alzheimer’s disease dementia and cognitive function in elderly people: a cross-sectional study Lancet Neurol 15 2016 934 943 27312738 PMC4969105
- [207]Jefferson A.L. Beiser A. Himali J. Seshadri S. O’Donnell C.J. Manning W. Low Cardiac Index is associated with incident dementia and Alzheimer’s disease: the Framingham Heart Study Alzheimer Dement 10 2014 678 PMC4398627 25700178
- [208]Carmichael O.T. Kuller L.H. Lopez O.L. Thompson P.M. Dutton R.A. Lu A. Ventricular volume and dementia progression in the Cardiovascular Health Study Neurbiol Aging 28 2007 389 397 PMC2866509 16504345
- [209]Guo X. Ostling S. Skoog I. Risk of Dementia is increased both before and after stroke Alzheimer Dement 10 2014 747 748 29936145
- [210]Mosley T.H. Knopman D.S. Catellier D.J. Bryan N. Hutchinson R.G. Grothues C.A. Cerebral MRI findings and cognitive functioning: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study Neurology 64 2005 2056 2062 15985571
- [211]Vemuri P. Lesnick T.G. Przybelski S.A. Knopman D.S. Preboske G.M. Kantarci K. Vascular and amyloid pathologies are independent predictor of cognitive decline in normal elderly Brain 138 2015 761 771 25595145 PMC4339775
- [212]Ye B.S. Seo S.W. Kim G.H. Noh Y. Cho H. Yoon C.W. Amyloid burden, cerebrovascular disease, brain atrophy, and cognition in cognitively impaired patients Alzheimer Dement 11 2015 494 503 PMC5862069 25048578
- [216]Alzheimer A. Uber eigenartige Krankheitsfalle des spateren Alters. Zeitschrift fur die gesamte Neurologie und Psychiatrie 1911;11:356-85.
- [218]Sperling R.A. Aisen P.S. Beckett L.A. Bennett D.A. Craft S. Fagan A.M. Toward defining the preclinical stages of Alzheimer’s disease: Recommendations from the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association workgroups on diagnostic guidelines for Alzheimer's disease Alzheimer Dement 7 2011 280 292 PMC3220946 21514248
- [223]Hanlon C.S. Rubinsztein D.C. Arginine residues at codons 112 and 158 in the apolipoprotein E gene correspond to the ancestral state in humans Atherosclerosis 112 1995 85 90 7772071
- [224]Corbo R.M. Scacchi R. Apolipoprotein E (APOE) allele distribution in the world. Is APOE*4 a 'thrifty' allele? Ann Hum Genet 63 1999 301 310 10738542
- [225]Toledo J.B. Arnold S.E. Raible K. Brettschneider J. Xie S.X. Grossman M. Contribution of cerebrovascular disease in autopsy confirmed neurodegenerative cases in the National Azlheimer’s Coordinating Centre Brain 136 2013 2697 2706 23842566 PMC3858112
- [226]Kaffashian S. Dugravot A. Nabi H. Batty G.D. Brunner E. Kivimäki M. Predictive utility of the Framingham general cardiovascular disease risk profile for cognitive function: evidence from the Whitehall II study Eur Heart J 32 2011 2326 2332 21606085 PMC3172575
- [227]Stukas S. Robert J. Wellington C.L. High-density lipoproteins and cerebrovascular integrity in Alzheimer’s disease Cell Metab 19 2014 574 591 24508505
- [228]Berman S.E. Rivera-Rivera L.A. Clark L.R. Racine A.N. Keevil J.G. Bratzke L.C. Intracranial arterial 4D-flow is associated with metrics of brain health and Alzheimer’s disease Alzheimer Dement 1 2015 420 428 PMC4674833 26693176
- [229]Suri S. Mackay C.E. Kelly M.E. Germuska M. Tunbridge E.M. Frisoni G.B. Reduced cerebrovascular reactivity in young adults carrying the APOE Ɛ4 allele Alzheimer Dement 11 2015 648 657 25160043
- [230]Sabayan B. Jansen S. Oleksik A.M. van Osch M.J.P. van Buchem M.A. van Vliet P. Cerebrovascular hemodynamics in Alzheimer’s disease and vascular dementia: A meta-analysis of transcranial Doppler studies Ageing Res Rev 11 2012 271 277 22226802
- [231]Austin S.A. Santhanam A.V. Hinton D.J. Choi D.S. Katusic Z.S. Endothelial nitric oxide deficiency promotes Alzheimer’s disease pathology J Neurochem 127 2013 691 700 23745722 PMC3825764
- [232]Katusic Z.S. Austin S.A. Endothelial nitric oxide: protector of a healthy mind Eur Heart J 35 2014 888 894 24357508 PMC3977136
- [233]Atochin D.N. Huang P.L. Endothelial nitric oxide synthase transgenic models of endothelial dysfunction Pflugers Arch 460 2010 965 974 20697735 PMC2975487
- [236]Hardy J.A. Higgins G.A. Alzheimer’s disease: the amyloid cascade hypothesis Science 256 1992 184 185 1566067
- [237]Patterson B.W. Elbert D.L. Mawuenyega K.G. Kasten T. Ovod V. Ma S. Age and amyloid effects on human central nervous system amyloid-beta kinetics Ann Neurol 78 2015 439 453 26040676 PMC4546566
- [238]Yau W.Y.W. Tudorascu D.L. McDade E.M. Ikonomovic S. James J.A. Minhas D. Longitudinal assessment of neuroimaging and clinical markers in autosomal dominant Alzheimer’s disease: a prospective cohort study Lancet Neurol 14 2015 804 813 26139022 PMC4519011
- [239]Blennow K. Wallin A. Fredman P.K. Gottfries C.G. Svennerholm L. Blood-brain barrier disturbance in patients with Alzheimer’s disease is related to vascular factors Acta Neurol Scand 81 1990 323 326 2360400
- [240]Keable A. Fenna K. Yuen H.M. Johnston D.A. Smyth N.R. Smith C. Deposition of amyloid β in the walls of human leptomeningeal arteries in relation to perivascular drainage pathways in cerebral amyloid angiopathy Biochim Biophys Acta 1862 2016 1037 1046 26327684 PMC4827375
- [241]Sudduth T.L. Weekman E.M. Brothers H.M. Braun K. Wilcock D.M. β-amyloid deposition is shifted to the vasculature and memory impairment is exacerbated when hyperhomocysteinemia is induced in APP/PS1 transgenic mice Alzheimers Res Ther 6 2014 32 24991237 PMC4078260
- [242]Suo Z. Humphrey J. Kundtz A. Sethi F. Placzek A. Crawford F. Soluble Alzheimers β-amyloid constricts the cerebral vasculature in vivo Neurosci Lett 257 1998 77 80 9865931
- [243]Miao J. Xu F. Davis J. Holler I.O. Verbeek M.M. Nostrand W.E.V. Cerebral microvascular amyloidβ protein deposition induces vascular degeneration and neuroinflammation in transgenic mice expressing human vasculotropic mutant amyloidβ precursor protein Am J Pathol 167 2005 505 515 16049335 PMC1603574
- [245]O’Rourke M.F. Safar M.E. Dzau V. The cardiovascular continuum extended aging effects on the aorta and microvasculature Vas Med 15 2010 461 468 21056945
- [246]Hughes T.M. Craft S. Lopez O.L. Review of the potential role of arterial stiffness in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease Neurodegener Dis Manag 5 2015 121 135 25894876 PMC4423756
- [247]Henry-Feugeas M.C. Roy C. Shouman-Claeys W. Leukoaraiosis and pulse-wave encephalopathy: obstervations wit phase-contrast MRI in mild cognitive impairment J Neuroradiol 36 2009 212 218 19250677
200 of 234 shown
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Comprehensive Review on Alzheimer’s Disease: Causes and Treatment
Breijyeh, Z., & Karaman, R. (2020) · Molecules · doi:10.3390/molecules25245789 · Cited by 2,789 · see citing works
Nutrition and prevention of cognitive impairment
Scarmeas, N., Anastasiou, C. A., & Yannakoulia, M. (2018) · The Lancet Neurology · doi:10.1016/s1474-4422(18)30338-7 · Cited by 612 · see citing works
Cruz Hernández, J. C., Bracko, O., Kersbergen, C. J., Muse, V., Haft-Javaherian, M., Berg, M., Park, L., Vinarcsik, L. K., Ivasyk, I., Rivera, D. A., et al. (2019) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-018-0329-4 · Cited by 508 · see citing works
Exercise benefits on Alzheimer’s disease: State-of-the-science
Valenzuela, P. L., Castillo-García, A., Morales, J. S., de la Villa, P., Hampel, H., Emanuele, E., Lista, S., & Lucia, A. (2020) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2020.101108 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Koch, M., Fitzpatrick, A. L., Rapp, S. R., Nahin, R. L., Williamson, J. D., Lopez, O. L., DeKosky, S. T., Kuller, L. H., Mackey, R. H., Mukamal, K. J., et al. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.10319 · Cited by 218 · see citing works
The viral protein corona directs viral pathogenesis and amyloid aggregation
Ezzat, K., Pernemalm, M., Pålsson, S., Roberts, T. C., Järver, P., Dondalska, A., Bestas, B., Sobkowiak, M. J., Levänen, B., Sköld, M., et al. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10192-2 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Claes, C., Danhash, E. P., Hasselmann, J., Chadarevian, J. P., Shabestari, S. K., England, W. E., Lim, T. E., Hidalgo, J. L. S., Spitale, R. C., Davtyan, H., et al. (2021) · Molecular Neurodegeneration · doi:10.1186/s13024-021-00473-0 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Veitch, D. P., Weiner, M. W., Aisen, P. S., Beckett, L. A., DeCarli, C., Green, R. C., Harvey, D., Jack, C. R., Jagust, W., Landau, S. M., et al. (2022) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12422 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Shared proteomic effects of cerebral atherosclerosis and Alzheimer’s disease on the human brain
Wingo, A. P., Fan, W., Duong, D. M., Gerasimov, E. S., Dammer, E. B., Liu, Y., Harerimana, N. V., White, B., Thambisetty, M., Troncoso, J. C., et al. (2020) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-020-0635-5 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
Alber, J., Goldfarb, D., Thompson, L. I., Arthur, E., Hernandez, K., Cheng, D., DeBuc, D. C., Cordeiro, F., Provetti‐Cunha, L., den Haan, J., et al. (2020) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12006 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationWeiner, M. W., Veitch, D. P., Miller, M. J., Aisen, P. S., Albala, B., Beckett, L. A., Green, R. C., Harvey, D., Jack, C. R., Jagust, W., et al. (2023) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1002/alz.12797 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Yang, Y.-W., Liou, S.-H., Hsueh, Y.-M., Lyu, W.-S., Liu, C.-S., Liu, H.-J., Chung, M.-C., Hung, P.-H., & Chung, C.-J. (2018) · Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.taap.2018.07.015 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Brain amyloid and vascular risk are related to distinct white matter hyperintensity patterns
Pålhaugen, L., Sudre, C. H., Tecelao, S., Nakling, A., Almdahl, I. S., Kalheim, L. F., Cardoso, M. J., Johnsen, S. H., Rongve, A., Aarsland, D., et al. (2021) · Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow & Metabolism · doi:10.1177/0271678x20957604 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Siddik, M. A. B., Mullins, C. A., Kramer, A., Shah, H., Gannaban, R. B., Zabet-Moghaddam, M., Huebinger, R. M., Hegde, V. K., MohanKumar, S. M. J., MohanKumar, P. S., et al. (2022) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells11213523 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Program, T. V. M. V., Bone, W. P., Siewert, K. M., Jha, A., Klarin, D., Damrauer, S. M., Chang, K.-M., Tsao, P. S., Assimes, T. L., Ritchie, M. D., et al. (2021) · Alzheimer's Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-021-00773-z · Cited by 41 · see citing works
COVID-19 as a Risk Factor for Alzheimer’s Disease
Golzari-Sorkheh, M., Weaver, D. F., & Reed, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Alzheimer's Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-220800 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Alacreu, M., Pardo, J., Azorín, M., Climent, M. T., Gasull, V., & Moreno, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2019.00860 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
- Authors
- Santos, C. Y., Snyder, P. J., Wu, W., Zhang, M., Echeverria, A., & Alber, J.
- Affiliations
- Lifespan Clinical Research Center, Rhode Island Hospital Providence RI USA
- University of Rhode Island (US)
- Brown University (US)
- Griffith University (AU)
- University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus (PR)
- Corresponding author
- Alber, Jessica
- Venue
- Alzheimer's & Dementia: Diagnosis, Assessment & Disease Monitoring
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2017-01
- Volume
- 7
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 69-87
- ISSN
- 2352-8729 (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC5328683
- OpenAlex
- W2586334933
- Cited by
- 431
- References
- 50
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 41 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 43 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 50 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 20 · 2014: 1 · 2013: 1
- FWCI
- 7.44
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Alzheimer s & Dementia Diagnosis Assessment & Disease Monitoring (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Griffith Research Online (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Alzheimer's disease research and treatments
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neurological Disease Mechanisms and Treatments
- Keywords
- Alzheimer's disease, cerebrovascular disease, cardiovascular risk, vascular dementia, dementia pathophysiology, dementia epidemiology, dementia genetics, cardiovascular disease, dementia prevention, population aging
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review