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Cited by 30Personality Traits and PsychologyPersonality Disorders and PsychopathologyIdentity, Memory, and Therapy

Narcissus locked in the past: vulnerable narcissism and the negative views of the past.

Open access
Zajenkowski, Marcin, Rogoza, Radosław, Maciantowicz, Oliwia, Witowska, Joanna, Jonason, Peter K.·2021·Journal of Research in Personality
DOI 10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104123
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Abstract

We examined how the perception of past events might contribute to the understanding of vulnerable narcissism. Across seven samples (NGrand = 1271), we investigated the association between vulnerable narcissism and individual differences in negative view of the past as well as how both were associated with basic personality traits, intrapersonal (i.e., affect, life satisfaction, and self-esteem) and interpersonal (i.e., anger, and hostility) outcomes, and memory biases of immediate life events and early life traumas. We found that vulnerable narcissism was reliably correlated with a negative view of the past. Additionally, both variables showed similar personality profiles (e.g., high neuroticism) and overlapped in explaining various outcomes, including self-esteem, anger, hostility, recalled traumas, and a negative memory bias.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

Across seven samples (N Grand = 1271), vulnerable narcissism was reliably associated with a negative view of the past, and the two constructs showed overlapping personality profiles and outcomes. The paper argues that a negative past orientation, including memory bias and recalled trauma, is a crucial aspect of vulnerable narcissism.

Key findings

  • Vulnerable narcissism and negative view of the past were positively associated: random-effects meta-analysis yielded Cohen’s d = 0.46 [95% CI 0.39, 0.53], p < .001, with I² = 49.1%.
  • Both constructs correlated positively with neuroticism (vulnerable narcissism r = .49; past negative r = .52) and BIS (r = .42 and .36), and negatively with extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness; vulnerable narcissism was more strongly linked to agreeableness, while past negative was more strongly linked to conscientiousness and withdrawal.
  • Both were negatively related to well-being indicators except positive affect, negatively related to self-esteem, and positively related to anger and hostility; commonality analyses showed past negative was the dominant predictor of well-being and self-esteem (e.g., 57% common variance in self-esteem), whereas vulnerable narcissism was the dominant predictor of antagonism.
  • In process studies, both predicted recalled early trauma (jointly explaining 34% of variance; 44.33% common) and negative memory bias (48.02% shared variance; vulnerable narcissism uniquely explained only 2.51%, past negative 49.46%).

Methods

  • Seven samples totaling N = 1271, mostly Polish undergraduate students and online/in-person participants recruited via snowball sampling; samples ranged from 77 to 267 participants.
  • Measures included the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale for vulnerable narcissism, the Zimbardo Time Perspective Inventory Past Negative scale, Narcissistic Personality Inventory for grandiose narcissism, Big Five measures, BIS/BAS, well-being/self-esteem/anger/hostility scales, Early Life Stress Questionnaire, and a memory recall task rated for valence.
  • Analyses used meta-analysis of correlations, Steiger’s z for comparing correlations, Pearson correlations, simultaneous linear regression, commonality analyses, and Poisson regression for traumas; studies were not pre-registered.

Limitations

  • Stated: studies were correlational and examined associations in independent samples, so causal conclusions and models including several variables could not be tested; some scales had only fair internal consistency (α ≈ 0.60); no invalid-responding checks were included, especially for online surveys; only some variables were assessed across all samples; both main variables overlap highly with neuroticism; and memory bias was categorized only by negative/positive valence.
  • Evident from the text: samples were predominantly Polish students or young adults recruited via snowball/online methods, limiting generalizability; several datasets came from larger projects, and the paper reports no preregistration.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104123

Cites

92 of 92 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Nothing to recompute.

Claims the paper makes

0 of 45 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism was correlated with BAS Reward.

    “Additionally, vulnerable narcissism was correlated with BAS Reward (H1g).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and past negative were negatively associated with extraversion.

    “Vulnerable narcissism and past negative were associated with four traits from the Big Five model: positively with neuroticism and negatively with extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (H1b to H1e).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism was more strongly correlated with agreeableness than past negative was.

    “Additionally, vulnerable narcissism was more strongly correlated with agreeableness, whereas past negative was more strongly linked with conscientiousness.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and negative view of the past showed similar personality profiles (e.g., high neuroticism).

    “Additionally, both variables showed similar personality profiles (e.g., high neuroticism) and overlapped in explaining various outcomes, including self-esteem, anger, hostility, recalled traumas, and a negative memory bias.”
    • Also stated in: § 5. Discussion · plain
      “We found that vulnerable narcissism and negative view of the past have similar personality profiles.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was a small negative correlation between grandiose narcissism and past negative.

    “Grandiose narcissism was weakly associated with both constructs (H1h); however, we found a small positive correlation for vulnerable narcissism and a small negative one for past negative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 24
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 16

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and past negative were generally negatively related to indicators of well-being, except for a null association with positive affect.

    “Vulnerable narcissism and past negative were generally negatively related to the indicators of well-being (H2a -H2e), except for a null association with positive affect.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and past negative correlated negatively with self-esteem.

    “Additionally, they also correlated negatively with self-esteem and positively with the indicators of antagonism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Both vulnerable narcissism and past negative were positively correlated with BIS.

    “Both vulnerable narcissism and past negative were positively correlated with BIS (H1f).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Grandiose narcissism was weakly associated with both vulnerable narcissism and past negative.

    “Grandiose narcissism was weakly associated with both constructs (H1h); however, we found a small positive correlation for vulnerable narcissism and a small negative one for past negative.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and past negative tap slightly different aspects of neuroticism, with past negative showing stronger correlation with withdrawal.

    “The analysis of the Big Five facets revealed that vulnerable narcissism and past negative tap slightly different aspects of neuroticism, since the latter showed stronger correlation with withdrawal (H1j), while for volatility we did not find differences in correlations (H1i).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    High vulnerable narcissism and negative view of the past are each associated with reporting more early traumatic experiences.

    “We found that people with high levels of vulnerable narcissism and those with especially negative views of their past reported more traumas”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Vulnerable narcissism and past negative uniquely explained some of the experienced trauma's variance, and they also had much in common (44.33%).

    “While vulnerable narcissism and past negative uniquely explained some of the experienced trauma's variance, they also had much in common (44.33%).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The models with self-esteem and hostility showed both predictors explained relatively large part of the variance, while having also much in common.

    “The most striking were the models with self-esteem and hostility where both predictors explained relatively large part of the variance, while having also much in common.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Those characterized by a tendency to remember more negative events in one's past and their immediate life were both more vulnerably narcissistic and had a negative view of one's past.

    “Our evidence is consistent with the hypotheses, suggesting that those characterized by a tendency to remember more negative events in one's past (H3a) and their immediate life (H3b) were both more vulnerably narcissistic and to have a negative view of one's past, the correlations that did not differ across each trait.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Past negative and vulnerable narcissism largely overlapped in explaining memory bias (almost 50%), and vulnerable narcissism added only 2.5% beyond common variance.

    “Second, past negative and vulnerable narcissism largely overlapped in explaining memory bias (almost 50%) and vulnerable narcissism did not add much (2.5%)beyond the common variance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both constructs might slightly differ at the conceptual level as well as the magnitude of associations with specific intra-and interpersonal outcomes.

    “However, both constructs might slightly differ at the conceptual level as well as the magnitude of associations with specific intra-and interpersonal outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    The studies presented in the manuscript were not pre-registered.

    “The studies presented in the manuscript were not pre-registered.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Vulnerable narcissists display maladaptive attachment styles.

    “display maladaptive attachment styles (Miller et al., 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Miller et al., 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The most prototypical broadband personality trait associated with vulnerable narcissism is neuroticism, followed by low agreeableness and low extraversion.

    “The most prototypical broadband personality trait associated with vulnerable narcissism is neuroticism, followed by low agreeableness and low extraversion (Maciantowicz & Zajenkowski, 2020a;Miller et al., 2018).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Maciantowicz & Zajenkowski, 2020a

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Miller et al., 2018 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    A negative view of the past is associated with well-being.

    “Additionally, one of the central characteristics of vulnerable narcissism is antagonism, especially the frequent experience of anger and hostile attitude (e.g., Krizan & Johar, 2015;Maciantowicz & Zajenkowski, 2020a), whereas a negative view of the past is associated with well-being (Stolarski et al., 2014;Zhang & Howell, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Stolarski et al., 2014 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Zhang & Howell, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    The memory recall task stories were assessed for valence by three independent, blind raters with α = 0.96.

    “The stories provided by the participants were then assessed for valence (1 = very negative; 7 = very positive) by three independent, blind raters (α = 0.96).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both constructs are highly correlated with neuroticism, but for vulnerable narcissism more important might be neurotic irritability while for negative view of the past the aspect related to anxiety.

    “Correspondingly, both constructs are highly correlated with neuroticism, however, for vulnerable narcissism more important might be neurotic irritability while for negative view of the past the aspect related to anxiety.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Narcissism may come in two major forms-grandiose and vulnerable-which are weakly positively correlated.

    “Narcissism may come in two major formsgrandiose and vulnerablewhich are weakly positively correlated (e.g., Miller et al., 2017;Wink, 1991).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Miller et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Wink, 1991

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Vulnerable narcissism was associated with more reward sensitivity as part of the behavioral activation system, which might underlie its positive link with grandiose narcissism.

    “Additionally, in contrast to past negative time perspective, vulnerable narcissism was associated with more reward sensitivity as part of the behavioral activation system, which might underlie its positive link with grandiose narcissism.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Vulnerable narcissism predicts specific states (e.g., anger) over neuroticism, while neuroticism is highly associated with general affect.

    “Moreover, while neuroticism is highly associated with general affect (e.g., negative mood, tension), vulnerable narcissism predicts specific states (e.g., anger) over neuroticism (Maciantowicz & Zajenkowski, 2020b).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Maciantowicz & Zajenkowski, 2020b

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    There may be specific processes of autobiographical memory among people oriented on the negative past.

    “It has been suggested that there might be specific processes of autobiographical memory among people oriented on the negative past (Matthews & Stolarski, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Matthews & Stolarski, 2015

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Anger rumination may lead to aggressiveness in vulnerable narcissists.

    “Such a possibility has already been suggested for anger rumination which may lead to aggressiveness in vulnerable narcissists (Ghim et al., 2015;Krizan & Johar, 2015).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Ghim et al., 2015 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Krizan & Johar, 2015 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Findings were consistent with prior research and most were replicated across the current studies.

    “However, our findings were consistent with prior research and most of them were replicated across the current studies.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Past negative perspective implies that an aversive attitude toward the past may stem from real traumatic experience or from negative reconstruction of past events.

    “the concept of past negative perspective implies that the source of an aversive attitude toward the past might be real traumatic experience, or it can be a consequence of negative reconstruction of the past events (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Negative view of the past has been linked to more severe symptoms after a traumatic event.

    “and more severe symptoms after a traumatic event (Stolarski & Cyniak-Cieciura, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stolarski & Cyniak-Cieciura, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductcitation

    No mechanism for identifying invalid responding was included, though such a procedure is recommended, especially for online surveys.

    “Fourth, we did not include any mechanism for identifying invalid responding, while implementing such procedure is recommended, especially for online surveys (like our Studies 3 and 4; Al-Salom & Miller, 2019).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Al-Salom & Miller, 2019

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The interaction between self-concept and memory might be dynamic and reciprocal; retrieval of negative events may influence current self-concept.

    “However, the interaction between self-concept and memory might be dynamic and reciprocal, as the retrieval of negative events may influence the person's sense of who they are currently (Conway & Pleydell-Price, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway & Pleydell-Price, 2000 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Vulnerable narcissists' current self-concept reconstructs past memories and the past reconstructs their self.

    “Thus, the vulnerable narcissists' current selfconcept reconstructs past memories and the past reconstructs their self (Conway & Pleydell-Price, 2000).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway & Pleydell-Price, 2000 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Negative view of the past predicts well-being over neuroticism.

    “Similar findings pertain to negative view of the past, which predicts well-being over neuroticism (Zhang & Howell, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Zhang & Howell, 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The theory of autobiographical memory suggests two functions: adaptive correspondence and self-coherence.

    “The theory of autobiographical memory suggests two functions in the forms of adaptive correspondence (i.e., accurate records of experience) and selfcoherence (i.e., the need to be consistent with self-concept; Conway, Singer, & Tagini, 2004).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway, Singer, & Tagini, 2004 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    These two functions are in tension, because self-coherence distorts experiences and reconstructs them to fit the self-schema.

    “These two functions are in tension, because selfcoherence distorts experiences and reconstructs them to fit the selfschema.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Conway, Singer, & Tagini, 2004 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Negative view of the past has been linked to a more negative relationship with parents.

    “the negative view of the past has been linked to a more negative relationship with parents (Kostić at al., 2017)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kostić at al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Internal consistencies were generally good (α ≥ 0.70) but some scales had only fair internal consistency (α ≈ 0.60).

    “Third, while we had generally good internal consistencies for our measures (i.e., αs' ≥ 0.70; Nunnally, 1978), some of our scales had only fair internal consistency estimates (i.e., α's ≈ 0.60).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Nunnally, 1978

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationnone given

    The tendency to concentrate on negative past events may stem from a bias in memory processes and may influence perception of self and others.

    “This tendency might stem from a bias in memory processes and may influence one's perception of themselves and others.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
34 of 34

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little is known about how vulnerable narcissists perceive their personal experiences.

    “However, less is known about how vulnerable narcissists perceive their personal experiences.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Little attention has been paid to narcissists' tendency to concentrate on the past.

    “surprisingly little attention has been paid to narcissists' tendency to concentrate on the past.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    No study has tested the direct association between negative view of the past and recalled traumas until now.

    “However, no study has tested the direct association between negative view of the past and the recalled traumas until now.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    This study was the first to directly examine people's tendency to remember more negative events of one's immediate life in relation to past negative time perspective as well as vulnerable narcissism.

    “Our study was the first to directly examine people's tendency to remember more negative events of one's immediate life in relation to past negative time perspective as well as vulnerable narcissism.”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Vulnerable narcissism is associated with fear of being taunted (gelotophobia), leading to social retraction and isolation, and with joy of making fun of others (katagelasticism), emphasizing more antagonistic attitudes.

    “Vulnerable narcissism has been associated both with the fear of being taunted (gelotophobia) (leading to social retraction and isolation) (38), and with to the joy of making fun of others (katagelasticism) (emphasizing more antagonistic attitudes) (39, 40).”

    From The dark side of empathy in narcissistic personality disorder (2023) · cites this paper as [38]

    Section 1.1 describes social withdrawal and hostile attitudes in vulnerable narcissism, and Section 5 reports an overlap with antagonism, particularly hostility. Neither section identifies gelotophobia or katagelasticism, so the specific associations with fear of being taunted and joy in making fun of others are not supported by this copy. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Study 6 sex counts total 82, not 84

    Minor

    The reported counts of 44 women and 38 men add to 82, leaving two of the 84 participants unaccounted for.

    Reported 84 · recomputed 82

  • Vulnerable narcissism is not dominant for every antagonism outcome

    Minor

    The results call vulnerable narcissism the dominant predictor of anger and hostility, but for hostility in Sample 4, negative view of the past has the larger regression coefficient and unique contribution.

  • Mood subscales total 29 items, not 24

    Minor

    The listed subscales contain 10, 9, and 10 items, respectively, for a total of 29 rather than the stated 24.

    Reported 24 · recomputed 29

  • Memory-bias estimate and confidence interval have opposite signs

    Minor

    Table 4 reports a negative correlation of −0.25 for vulnerable narcissism and recalled memory bias, but gives it an entirely positive confidence interval.

  • Grandiose-narcissism estimate lies outside its confidence interval

    Minor

    Table 3 reports a correlation of −0.09 with negative view of the past, but the displayed confidence interval ends at −0.11 and therefore excludes the estimate.

  • Study 4 is described as both a laboratory test and an online survey

    Minor

    The methods say Study 4 participants were tested individually in a laboratory, whereas the limitations identify Study 4 as an online survey.

6 of 6

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

Research works printed but not linked: 4

  1. Bazińska, 2000, Struktura narcyzmu w polskiej adaptacji kwestionariusza NPI Raskina i Halla. [The structure of narcissism measured with Polish adaptation of Raskin and Hall NPI], Czasopismo Psychologiczne, 6, 171
  2. Bąk, 2016, Pomiar stanu, cechy, ekspresji i kontroli złości. Polska adaptacja kwestionariusza STAXI-2. [The measurement of state, trait, expression, and control of anger. Polish adaptation of STAXI-2], Polskie Forum Psychologiczne., 12, 93
  3. Byra, 2011, Medycyna Ogólna i Nauki o Zdrowiu, 17, 64
  4. Strus, 2014, Polska adaptacja kwestionariusza IPIP-BFM-50 do pomiaru pięciu cech osobowości w ujęciu leksykalnym [Polish adaptation of IPIPBFM-50 measuring five personality traits in a lexical approach], Roczniki Psychologiczne, 17, 327

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Zajenkowski, M., Rogoza, R., Maciantowicz, O., Witowska, J., & Jonason, P. K.
Affiliations
  • University of Warsaw (PL)
  • Cardinal Stefan Wyszynski University in Warsaw (PL)
  • University of Padua (IT)
Corresponding author
Zajenkowski, Marcin
ORCID
Venue
Journal of Research in Personality
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2021-08
Volume
93
Pages
104123
ISSN
0092-6566 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104123
OpenAlex
W3174128531
Semantic Scholar
1361370f6b2ce05639ca1e2fb96a806cb88a4ac7
Cited by
30
References
92
Citations by year
2026: 5 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 2 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 2
FWCI
2.88
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Journal of Research in Personality (publishedVersion, cc-by)
  • ReIn UW (University of Warsaw) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • Padua Research Archive (University of Padova) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
  • INFM-OAR (INFN Catania) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
Funders
Narodowe Centrum Nauki (2016/23/B/HS6/00312, 2019/35/B/HS6/00682)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Disorders and Psychopathology
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Identity, Memory, and Therapy
Keywords
vulnerable narcissism, memory bias, early trauma, self-esteem, anger, hostility, life satisfaction, neuroticism, personality traits

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