Para-Inflammation in the Aging Retina

Xu, Heping; Chen, Mei; Forrester, John V.

doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.06.001

Cited by 659Retinal Diseases and TreatmentsOcular Diseases and Behçet’s SyndromeNeuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms

Para-Inflammation in the Aging Retina

Xu, Heping, Chen, Mei, Forrester, John V.·2009·Progress in Retinal and Eye Research

DOI 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.06.001

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Abstract

Para-inflammation is a tissue adaptive response to noxious stress or malfunction and has characteristics that are intermediate between basal and inflammatory states (Medzhitov, 2008). The physiological purpose of para-inflammation is to restore tissue functionality and homeostasis. Para-inflammation may become chronic or turn into inflammation if tissue stress or malfunction persists for a sustained period. Chronic para-inflammation contributes to the initiation and progression of many human diseases including obesity, type 2 diabetes, atherosclerosis, and age-related neurodegenerative diseases. Evidence from our studies and the studies of some others suggests that para-inflammation also exists in the aging retina in physiological conditions and might contribute to age-related retinal pathologies. The purpose of this review is to introduce the notion of "para-inflammation" as a state between frank, overt destructive inflammation and the non-inflammatory removal of dead or dying cells by apoptosis, to the retinal community. In diabetes and atherosclerosis, leukocytes particularly monocytes and vascular endothelial cells are constantly under noxious stress due to glycaemic and/or lipidaemic dysregulation. These blood-borne stresses trigger para-inflammatory responses in leukocytes and endothelial cells by up-regulating the expression of adhesion molecules or releasing cytokines/chemokines, which in turn cause abnormal leukocyte-endothelial interactions and ultimately vascular damage. In the aging retina, on the other hand, oxidized lipoproteins and free radicals are considered to be major causes of tissue stress and serve as local triggers for retinal para-inflammation. Microarray analysis has revealed the up-regulation of a large number of inflammatory genes, including genes involved in complement activation and inflammatory cytokine/chemokine production, in the aging retina. Para-inflammatory responses in the neuroretina of aged mice are characterized by microglial activation and subretinal migration, and breakdown of blood-retinal barrier. At the retinal/choroidal interface para-inflammation is manifested by complement activation in Bruch's membrane and RPE cells, and microglia accumulation in subretinal space. With age, para-inflammatory changes have also been observed in the choroidal tissue, evidenced by 1) increased thickness of choroid; 2) increased number of CD45(+)CRIg(+) macrophages; 3) morphological abnormalities in choroidal melanocytes; and 4) fibrosis in choroidal tissue. An increased knowledge of contribution of retinal para-inflammation to various pathological conditions is essential for the better understanding of the pathogenesis of various age-related retinal diseases including diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma and age-related macular degeneration.

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Danger signals in the retina may result in mild activation of the innate immune system, termed para-inflammation.
“While the immune tolerance mechanism tries to counterbalance inflammation, danger signals in the retina may still result in mild activation of the innate immune system, in a process recently termed para-inflammation [27][28][29].”
From Risk mitigation of immunogenicity: a key to personalized retinal gene therapy (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
In AMD, oxidative stress may elicit para-inflammation where the innate immune system induces a mild inflammatory response to restore homeostasis that, if chronic, may contribute to AMD through imbalanced inflammatory response.
“In AMD, the oxidative stress may elicit a response also known as “para-inflammation” where the innate immune system induces a mild inflammatory response to restore homeostasis that, if chronic, may contribute to AMD through imbalanced inflammatory response [28].”
From Risk mitigation of immunogenicity: a key to personalized retinal gene therapy (2021) · cites this paper as [28]
Retinal inflammation and degeneration have been reported to commence earlier than 24 months in rodents.
“Retinal inflammation and degeneration have been reported to commence earlier than 24 months in rodents”
From Fecal microbiota transfer between young and aged mice reverses hallmarks of the aging gut, eye, and brain (2022) · cites this paper as [129]

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Retinal Pigment Epithelium-Derived CTLA-2α Induces TGFβ-Producing T Regulatory Cells,
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Leukocyte Diapedesis In Vivo Induces Transient Loss of Tight Junction Protein at the Blood–Retina Barrier
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CD59, a Complement Regulatory Protein, Controls Choroidal Neovascularization in a Mouse Model of Wet-Type Age-Related Macular Degeneration
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Diabetic retinopathy
Cheung, N., Mitchell, P., & Wong, T. Y. (2010) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(09)62124-3 · Cited by 3,288 · see citing works
Diabetic retinopathy
Wong, T. Y., Cheung, C. M. G., Larsen, M., Sharma, S., & Simó, R. (2016) · Nature Reviews Disease Primers · doi:10.1038/nrdp.2016.12 · Cited by 1,189 · see citing works
The progress in understanding and treatment of diabetic retinopathy
Stitt, A. W., Curtis, T. M., Chen, M., Medina, R. J., McKay, G. J., Jenkins, A. J., Gardiner, T. A., Lyons, T. J., Hammes, H., Simó, R., et al. (2015) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.08.001 · Cited by 1,178 · see citing works
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Inflammation in diabetic retinopathy
Tang, J. C. O., & Kern, T. S. (2011) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.05.002 · Cited by 1,118 · see citing works
Oxidative stress and diabetic retinopathy: Molecular mechanisms, pathogenetic role and therapeutic implications
Kang, Q., & Yang, C. (2020) · Redox Biology · doi:10.1016/j.redox.2020.101799 · Cited by 1,075 · see citing works
Diabetic retinopathy: current understanding, mechanisms, and treatment strategies
Duh, E. J., Sun, J. K., & Stitt, A. W. (2017) · JCI Insight · doi:10.1172/jci.insight.93751 · Cited by 1,057 · see citing works
Understanding age-related macular degeneration (AMD): Relationships between the photoreceptor/retinal pigment epithelium/Bruch’s membrane/choriocapillaris complex
Bhutto, I. A., & Lutty, G. A. (2012) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2012.04.005 · Cited by 1,005 · see citing works
Molecular basis of the inner blood-retinal barrier and its breakdown in diabetic macular edema and other pathological conditions
Klaassen, I., Noorden, C. J. F. V., & Schlingemann, R. O. (2013) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.02.001 · Cited by 720 · see citing works
Recent Research on the Health Benefits of Blueberries and Their Anthocyanins
Kalt, W., Cassidy, A., Howard, L. R., Krikorian, R., Stull, A. J., Tremblay, F., & Zamora‐Ros, R. (2019) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.1093/advances/nmz065 · Cited by 679 · see citing works
Inflammation and its role in age-related macular degeneration
Kauppinen, A., Paterno, J. J., Błasiak, J., Salminen, A., & Kaarniranta, K. (2016) · Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences · doi:10.1007/s00018-016-2147-8 · Cited by 660 · see citing works
Immunology of age-related macular degeneration
Ambati, J., Atkinson, J. P., & Gelfand, B. D. (2013) · Nature reviews. Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri3459 · Cited by 591 · see citing works
Retinal microglia: Just bystander or target for therapy?
Karlstetter, M., Scholz, R., Rutar, M., Wong, W. T., Provis, J. M., & Langmann, T. (2014) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.11.004 · Cited by 549 · see citing works
Age-related alterations in the dynamic behavior of microglia
Damani, M. R., Zhao, L., Fontainhas, A. M., Amaral, J., Fariss, R. N., & Wong, W. T. (2011) · Aging Cell · doi:10.1111/j.1474-9726.2010.00660.x · Cited by 504 · see citing works
Microglia during development and aging
Harry, G. J. (2013) · Pharmacology & Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.pharmthera.2013.04.013 · Cited by 524 · see citing works
Inflammation in Glaucoma: From the back to the front of the eye, and beyond
Baudouin, C., Kolko, M., Parsadaniantz, S. M., & Messmer, E. S. B. M. (2020) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2020.100916 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
The Role of Inflammation in Diabetic Retinopathy
Forrester, J. V., Kuffová, L., & Delibegović, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2020.583687 · Cited by 448 · see citing works
Self-citation
NLRP3 has a protective role in age-related macular degeneration through the induction of IL-18 by drusen components
Doyle, S., Campbell, M., Ozaki, E., Salomon, R. G., Mori, A., Kenna, P. F., Farrar, G. J., Kiang, A., Humphries, M. M., Lavelle, E. C., et al. (2012) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2717 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Light-emitting diodes (LED) for domestic lighting: Any risks for the eye?
Béhar‐Cohen, F., Martinsons, C., Viénot, F., Zissis, G., Barlier-Salsi, A., Césarini, J. P., Enouf, O., Garcia, M., Picaud, S. A., & Attia, D. (2011) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2011.04.002 · Cited by 417 · see citing works
Cellular responses following retinal injuries and therapeutic approaches for neurodegenerative diseases
Cuenca, N., Fernández-Sánchez, L., Campello, L., Maneu, V., De la Villa, P., Lax, P., & Pinilla, I. (2014) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2014.07.001 · Cited by 401 · see citing works
Animal models of age related macular degeneration
Pennesi, M. E., Neuringer, M., & Courtney, R. J. (2012) · Molecular Aspects of Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.mam.2012.06.003 · Cited by 391 · see citing works
Parainflammation, Chronic Inflammation and Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Chen, M., & Xu, H. (2015) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1189/jlb.3ri0615-239r · Cited by 381 · see citing works
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Fecal microbiota transfer between young and aged mice reverses hallmarks of the aging gut, eye, and brain
Parker, A., Romano, S., Ansorge, R., Aboelnour, A., Le Gall, G., Savva, G. M., Pontifex, M. G., Telatin, A., Baker, D., Jones, E., et al. (2022) · Microbiome · doi:10.1186/s40168-022-01243-w · Cited by 368 · see citing works
Ocular complications of diabetes mellitus
Sayın, N. (2015) · World Journal of Diabetes · doi:10.4239/wjd.v6.i1.92 · Cited by 360 · see citing works
VEGFR1 signaling in retinal angiogenesis and microinflammation
Uemura, A., Fruttiger, M., D'Amore, P. A., Falco, S. D., Joussen, A. M., Sennlaub, F., Brunck, L. R., Johnson, K. T. M., Lambrou, G. N., Rittenhouse, K. D., et al. (2021) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.100954 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Early microglia activation in a mouse model of chronic glaucoma
Bosco, A., Steele, M. R., & Vetter, M. L. (2010) · The Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.22516 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Immune Regulation in the Aging Retina
Chen, M., Luo, C., Zhao, J., Devarajan, G., & Xu, H. (2019) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2018.10.003 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
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Glia of the human retina
Reichenbach, A., & Bringmann, A. (2019) · Glia · doi:10.1002/glia.23727 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Soft Drusen in Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Biology and Targeting Via the Oil Spill Strategies
Curcio, C. A. (2018) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.18-24882 · Cited by 319 · see citing works
Atherosclerosis and Inflammation: Insights from the Theory of General Pathological Processes
Gusev, E., & Sarapultsev, A. (2023) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms24097910 · Cited by 336 · see citing works
Biomarkers in Diabetic Retinopathy
Jenkins, A. J., Joglekar, M. V., Hardikar, A. A., KEECH, A. C., O'Neal, D. N., & Januszewski, A. S. (2015) · The Review of Diabetic Studies · doi:10.1900/rds.2015.12.159 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation in Retinal Pigment Epithelial Cells by Lysosomal Destabilization: Implications for Age-Related Macular Degeneration
Tseng, W. A., Thein, T., Kinnunen, K., Lashkari, K., Gregory, M. S., D'Amore, P. A., & Ksander, B. R. (2012) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.12-10655 · Cited by 287 · see citing works
Polyphenol Stilbenes: Molecular Mechanisms of Defence against Oxidative Stress and Aging-Related Diseases
Reinisalo, M., Kårlund, A., Koskela, A. K. J., Kaarniranta, K., & Karjalainen, R. (2015) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2015/340520 · Cited by 285 · see citing works
Neuroinflammation in glaucoma: A new opportunity
Williams, P. A., Marsh-Armstrong, N., Howell, G. R., Bosco, A., Danias, J., Simon, J., Di Polo, A., Kuehn, M. H., Przedborski, S., Raff, M., et al. (2017) · Experimental Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.exer.2017.02.014 · Cited by 253 · see citing works
“An increasing body of literature, especially from various animal models, suggests neuroinflammation (generally considered to be immune responses relevant to the central nervous system (CNS)) is a key process in glaucoma (Xu et al., 2009; Baltmr et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2013; Soto and Howell, 2014).”
BackgroundInfluential
IL-1 Family Members Mediate Cell Death, Inflammation and Angiogenesis in Retinal Degenerative Diseases
Wooff, Y., Man, S. M., Aggio‐Bruce, R., Natoli, R., & Fernando, N. (2019) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2019.01618 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Aging is not a disease: Distinguishing age-related macular degeneration from aging
Ardeljan, D., & Chan, C. (2013) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2013.07.003 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Retinal microglia – A key player in healthy and diseased retina
Rathnasamy, G., Foulds, W. S., Ling, E., & Kaur, C. (2018) · Progress in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.05.006 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
Defects in retinal pigment epithelial cell proteolysis and the pathology associated with age-related macular degeneration.
Ferrington, D. A., Sinha, D., & Kaarniranta, K. (2016) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.09.002 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Age‐Related Macular Degeneration: New Paradigms for Treatment and Management of AMD
Hernández-Zimbrón, L. F., Zamora-Alvarado, R., la Paz, L. D. O.-D., Vélez-Montoya, R., Zenteno, E., Gulías-Cañizo, R., Quiroz–Mercado, H., & González-Salinas, R. (2018) · Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity · doi:10.1155/2018/8374647 · Cited by 239 · see citing works
Novel approaches for treating diabetic retinopathy based on recent pathogenic evidence
Simó, R., & Hernández, C. (2015) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.04.003 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Hyperreflective Dots: A New Spectral-Domain Optical Coherence Tomography Entity for Follow-Up and Prognosis in Exudative Age-Related Macular Degeneration
COSCAS, G. J., Benedetto, U. D., Coscas, F., Calzi, C. I. L., Vismara, S., Roudot‐Thoraval, F., Bandello, F. M., & Souied, E. H. (2012) · Ophthalmologica · doi:10.1159/000342159 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Adaptive Müller Cell Responses to Microglial Activation Mediate Neuroprotection and Coordinate Inflammation in the Retina
Wang, M., Ma, W., Zhao, L., Fariss, R. N., & Wong, W. T. (2011) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/1742-2094-8-173 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Differentiating drusen: Drusen and drusen-like appearances associated with ageing, age-related macular degeneration, inherited eye disease and other pathological processes
Khan, K. N., Mahroo, O. A., Khan, R. S., Mohamed, M. D., McKibbin, M., Bird, A. C., Michaelides, M., Tufail, A., & Moore, A. T. (2016) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2016.04.008 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Three-Dimensional 1060-nm OCT: Choroidal Thickness Maps in Normal Subjects and Improved Posterior Segment Visualization in Cataract Patients
Esmaeelpour, M., Považay, B., Hermann, B. M., Höfer, B., Kajic, V., Kapoor, K., Sheen, N. J. L., North, R. V., & Drexler, W. (2010) · Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.10-5196 · Cited by 222 · see citing works
Microglia/Macrophages Migrate through Retinal Epithelium Barrier by a Transcellular Route in Diabetic Retinopathy
Omri, S., Béhar‐Cohen, F., de Kozak, Y., Sennlaub, F., Veríssimo, L. M., Jonet, L., Savoldelli, M., Omri, B., & Crisanti, P. (2011) · American Journal Of Pathology · doi:10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.04.018 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Microglia in the Mouse Retina Alter the Structure and Function of Retinal Pigmented Epithelial Cells: A Potential Cellular Interaction Relevant to AMD
Ma, W., Zhao, L., Fontainhas, A. M., Fariss, R. N., & Wong, W. T. (2009) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007945 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
The role of free radicals in the aging brain and Parkinson’s Disease: Convergence and parallelism
Kumar, H., Lim, H.-W., More, S. V., Kim, B.-W., Koppula, S., Kim, I. S., & Choi, D.-K. (2012) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms130810478 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Microglia in the healthy and degenerating retina: Insights from novel mouse models
Karlstetter, M., Ebert, S., & Langmann, T. (2010) · Immunobiology · doi:10.1016/j.imbio.2010.05.010 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
TXNIP Links Innate Host Defense Mechanisms to Oxidative Stress and Inflammation in Retinal Muller Glia under Chronic Hyperglycemia: Implications for Diabetic Retinopathy
Devi, T. S., Lee, I., Hüttemann, M., Kumar, A., Nantwi, K. D., & Singh, L. P. (2012) · Experimental Diabetes Research · doi:10.1155/2012/438238 · Cited by 199 · see citing works
Minocycline counter-regulates pro-inflammatory microglia responses in the retina and protects from degeneration
Scholz, R., Sobotka, M., Caramoy, A., Stempfl, T., Moehle, C., & Langmann, T. (2015) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/s12974-015-0431-4 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
Past history of obesity triggers persistent epigenetic changes in innate immunity and exacerbates neuroinflammation
Hata, M., Andriessen, E. M. M. A., Hata, M., Diaz-Marin, R., Fournier, F., Crespo‐Garcia, S., Blot, G., Juneau, R., Pilon, F., Dejda, A., et al. (2023) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.abj8894 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
Immune mechanisms in inflammatory and degenerative eye disease
Perez, V. L., & Caspi, R. R. (2015) · Trends in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.it.2015.04.003 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
Microglia in mouse retina contralateral to experimental glaucoma exhibit multiple signs of activation in all retinal layers
Rojas, B., Gallego, B., Ramirez, A. I., Salazar, J. J., de Hoz, R., Valiente‐Soriano, F. J., Avilés‐Trigueros, M., Villegas‐Pérez, M. P., Vidal‐Sanz, M., Triviño, A., et al. (2014) · Journal of Neuroinflammation · doi:10.1186/1742-2094-11-133 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Age-related macular degeneration: A two-level model hypothesis
Rozing, M. P., Durhuus, J. A., Nielsen, M. K., Subhi, Y., Kirkwood, T. B. L., Westendorp, R. G., & Sørensen, T. L. (2019) · Progress in Retinal and Eye Research · doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2019.100825 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
Advances in our understanding of diabetic retinopathy
Stitt, A. W., Lois, N., Medina, R. J., Adamson, P., & Curtis, T. M. (2013) · Clinical Science · doi:10.1042/cs20120588 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Photoreceptor Proteins Initiate Microglial Activation via Toll-like Receptor 4 in Retinal Degeneration Mediated by All-trans-retinal
Kohno, H., Chen, Y., Kevany, B. M., Pearlman, E. M., Miyagi, M., Maeda, T., Palczewski, K., & Maeda, A. (2013) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m112.448712 · Cited by 175 · see citing works
Histologic and optical coherence tomographic correlates in drusenoid pigment epithelium detachment in age-related macular degeneration.
Balaratnasingam, C., Messinger, J. D., Sloan, K. R., Yannuzzi, L. A., Freund, K. B., & Curcio, C. A. (2017) · Ophthalmology · doi:10.1016/j.ophtha.2016.12.034 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
The Project MACULA retinal pigment epithelium grading system for histology and optical coherence tomography in age-related macular degeneration
Zanzottera, E. C., Messinger, J. D., Ach, T., Smith, R. T., Freund, K. B., & Curcio, C. A. (2015) · Investigative Opthalmology & Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.15-16431 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Structure, Function, and Pathology of Bruch's Membrane
Curcio, C. A., & Johnson, M. (2012) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-1-4557-0737-9.00020-5 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Oxidative stress, innate immunity, and age-related macular degeneration
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Authors: Xu, H., Chen, M., & Forrester, J. V.
Affiliations: University of Aberdeen (GB)
Corresponding author: Xu, Heping
ORCID: Xu, Heping
Chen, Mei
Forrester, John V.
Venue: Progress in Retinal and Eye Research
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2009-09
Volume: 28
Issue: 5
Pages: 348-368
ISSN: 1350-9462 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2009.06.001
OpenAlex: W2034060753
Cited by: 659
References: 276
Citations by year: 2026: 23 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 44 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 39 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 43 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 45 · 2016: 38 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 42 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 42
FWCI: 6.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Progress in Retinal and Eye Research (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Retinal Diseases and Treatments
Health Sciences › Medicine › Ophthalmology › Ocular Diseases and Behçet’s Syndrome
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Neuroinflammation and Neurodegeneration Mechanisms
Keywords: microglial activation, complement activation, blood-retinal barrier breakdown, choroid, retinal pigment epithelium, Bruch's membrane, oxidative stress, oxidized lipoproteins, diabetic retinopathy, glaucoma, choroidal neovascularization
MeSH terms: Aging, Animals, Blood-Retinal Barrier, Diabetic Retinopathy, Glaucoma, Humans, Inflammation, Macular Degeneration, Retina, Retinitis, Up-Regulation, Oxidative Stress

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Para-Inflammation in the Aging Retina

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