Immature Frontal Lobe Contributions to Cognitive Control in Children

“…and John D.E. Gabrieli1,2 1Neurosciences Program Stanford University Stanford, California 94305 Prefrontal lesions in adults and nonhuman primates lead 2 Department of Psychology to impairments in cognitive control (Luria, 1966; Stuss Stanford University and Benson, 1986; Miller and Cohen, 2001).”

“This task combined the Eriksen flanker (Erik- sen and Eriksen, 1974) and go/no-go paradigms (Figure Introduction 1).”

“…University maturation is provided by measures of myelination (YaWashington, D.C. 20057 kovlev and Lecours, 1967; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Giedd et al., 1999), gray matter reduction (Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis…”

“The large differences in the present a button box with the index and middle fingers of their right hand.crosssectional study suggests that a major transformaPsyscope (Cohen et al., 1993) was used to generate stimuli and tion occurs between ages 12 and 19, and imaging stud- to collect responses.”

“…1993; Giedd et al., 1999), gray matter reduction (Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis (Huttenlocher, 1979), and resting metabolism (Chugani et al., 1987; for reviews, see Casey Event-related fMRI was employed to characterize dif- et…”

“…that anterior insula may play as important a role in cognitive control as the frontal and cingulate regionshave been observed for studies related to verbal articu- lation (Dronkers, 1996; lesion study) or phonological pro- which have received much attention. cessing (e.g., Paulesu et al., 1993).”

“…(Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis (Huttenlocher, 1979), and resting metabolism (Chugani et al., 1987; for reviews, see Casey Event-related fMRI was employed to characterize dif- et al., 2000a; Gaillard et al., 2001; Diamond,…”

“…and blood flow coding: 13.7 .7; block design: 14.3 .9 [M SEM]).and amount of artifact due to motion, respiration, or Average IQ (estimated from vocabulary and block de-cardiac activity (Gaillard et al., 2001; Casey et al., 2000b; sign tests; see Spreen and Strauss, 1998) was 125 4Diamond, 2002).”

“More anterior foci (adjacent to the inferior frontal gyrus; y 8 to y 30) Response Inhibition Adults exhibited little variability in terms of either perfor-have been observed for studies that required cognitive control (e.g., Garavan et al., 1999; Bunge et al., 2000, mance or regions activated.”

“…(Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis (Huttenlocher, 1979), and resting metabolism (Chugani et al., 1987; for reviews, see Casey Event-related fMRI was employed to characterize dif- et al., 2000a; Gaillard et al., 2001; Diamond, 2002).”

“…that anterior insula may play as important a role in cognitive control as the frontal and cingulate regionshave been observed for studies related to verbal articu- lation (Dronkers, 1996; lesion study) or phonological pro- which have received much attention. cessing (e.g., Paulesu et al., 1993).”

“…robust activation of regions that have been identified in previous studies of response inhibition Unlike the present study, previous go/no-go studies have observed robust lateral prefrontal activation in chil-(Casey et al., 1997; Rubia et al., 2000) but resulted in weak brain-behavior correlations.”

“Insular activa- tion is remarkably ubiquitous in imaging studies but 2001; Dove et al., 2000; Rubia et al., 2001).”

“Evidence from fMRI tion, as measured by tests of reasoning, problem-solving, and IQ (e.g., Dempster, 1992).”

“…of cognitive control are the ability requirement of responding to the central target (Eriksen to filter out irrelevant information in the environment and Eriksen, 1974; Gratton et al., 1988; Botvinick et al., (interference suppression) and the ability to inhibit inap1999; Hazeltine et al., 2000).”

“…require1997) and inhibit prepotent response tendencies or an active response (go), participants must inhibit a pre-strategies (Costantini and Hoving, 1973; Casey et al., potent tendency to respond on all trials on the minority1997; Williams et al., 1999; Diamond, 1988; Luna et al., of no-go trials.”

“In contrast, there was dren (Casey et al., 1997; Vaidya et al., 1998).”

“Using thestimuli or stimulus dimensions (Hazeltine et al., 2000), index and middle fingers of their right hand, subjects pressed a left or shift cognitive sets (Konishi et al., 1999).”

“Insular activa- tion is remarkably ubiquitous in imaging studies but 2001; Dove et al., 2000; Rubia et al., 2001).”

“Bjorkland, 1993) include tasks in which subjects must In the go/no-go paradigm, subjects must withhold re-ignore irrelevant stimuli (Tipper et al., 1989; Ridderinkhof sponding to an inappropriate stimulus, while respondinget al., 1997; Comalli et al., 1962; Lorsbach and Reimer, to all other stimuli.”

“…robust activation of regions that have been identified in previous studies of response inhibition Unlike the present study, previous go/no-go studies have observed robust lateral prefrontal activation in chil-(Casey et al., 1997; Rubia et al., 2000) but resulted in weak brain-behavior correlations.”

“Functional images were acquired formaturation of the mind. the same set of slices using a T2*-sensitive gradient echo spiral References pulse sequence (Glover and Lai, 1998) (1000 ms TR, 30 ms TE, 60 flip angle, 24 cm field of view, 64 64 data acquisition matrix).”

“…and blood flow coding: 13.7 .7; block design: 14.3 .9 [M SEM]).and amount of artifact due to motion, respiration, or Average IQ (estimated from vocabulary and block de-cardiac activity (Gaillard et al., 2001; Casey et al., 2000b; sign tests; see Spreen and Strauss, 1998) was 125 4Diamond, 2002).”

“…by measures of myelination (YaWashington, D.C. 20057 kovlev and Lecours, 1967; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Giedd et al., 1999), gray matter reduction (Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis (Huttenlocher, 1979), and resting metabolism (Chugani…”

“…kovlev and Lecours, 1967; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Giedd et al., 1999), gray matter reduction (Jernigan et al., 1991; Pfefferbaum et al., 1993; Sowell et al., 2001), Summary synaptogenesis (Huttenlocher, 1979), and resting metabolism (Chugani et al., 1987; for reviews, see Casey Event-related…”

“On eachresponding (Casey et al., 1997; Konishi et al., 1998; trial, they viewed an array of five stimuli, including a central arrowRubia et al., 2001), suppress interference from irrelevant and two stimuli on either side of it (flankers) (Figure 1).”

“…frontal gyrus displayed a weaker, but also positive, correlation between activation and performance liams et al., 1999) and were more susceptible to interfer- ence from the environment (Tipper et al., 1989; Ridde-(identified at p .01; BA 9; [44, 14, 32]; z 3.00; 144 mm3). rinkhof et al., 1997).”

“More anterior foci (adjacent to the inferior frontal gyrus; y 8 to y 30) Response Inhibition Adults exhibited little variability in terms of either perfor-have been observed for studies that required cognitive control (e.g., Garavan et al., 1999; Bunge et al., 2000, mance or regions activated.”

“Neuron, Vol. 33, 301–311, January 17, 2002, Copyright 2002 by Cell Press”

“…of cognitive control are the ability requirement of responding to the central target (Eriksen to filter out irrelevant information in the environment and Eriksen, 1974; Gratton et al., 1988; Botvinick et al., (interference suppression) and the ability to inhibit inap1999; Hazeltine et al., 2000).”

“…and blood flow coding: 13.7 .7; block design: 14.3 .9 [M SEM]).and amount of artifact due to motion, respiration, or Average IQ (estimated from vocabulary and block de-cardiac activity (Gaillard et al., 2001; Casey et al., 2000b; sign tests; see Spreen and Strauss, 1998) was 125 4Diamond, 2002).”

“Within PFC, a region in right to withhold inappropriate responses than were adults (Costantini and Hoving, 1973; Casey et al., 1997; Wil-middle frontal gyrus displayed a weaker, but also positive, correlation between activation and performance liams et al., 1999) and were more susceptible to…”

“Yet evidence indicates that diverse types of inhibitory control of attention and action appear to share substantially similar neural bases (Bunge et al. 2002, Cohen et al. 2012).”

“Further support for this claim is provided by two recent fMRI studies in which involvement of the right lateral prefrontal cortex was detected when participants inhibited a prepotent response in a sensory motor task (Bunge et al., 2002) and also in a deductive-reasoning task (Goel & Dolan, 2003).”

“…over a period of time results in both refinement within brain regions as well as fine tuning of projections from these regions (Brown et al. 2005; Bunge et al. 2002; Casey et al. 1997; Casey et al. 2002; Luna et al. 2001; Moses et al. 2002; Schlaggar et al. 2002; Tamm et al. 2002; Thomas et al.…”