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Cited by 86Neural and Behavioral Psychology StudiesNeurotransmitter Receptor Influence on BehaviorNeurobiology of Language and Bilingualism

Effects of incentives, age, and behavior on brain activation during inhibitory control: a longitudinal fMRI study

Open access
Paulsen, David J., Hallquist, Michael N., Geier, Charles F., Luna, Beatriz·2015·Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
DOI 10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.003PMC PMC4323861
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Abstract

We investigated changes in brain function supporting inhibitory control under age-controlled incentivized conditions, separating age- and performance-related activation in an accelerated longitudinal design including 10- to 22-year-olds. Better inhibitory control correlated with striatal activation during neutral trials, while Age X Behavior interactions in the striatum indicated that in the absence of extrinsic incentives, younger subjects with greater reward circuitry activation successfully engage in greater inhibitory control. Age was negatively correlated with ventral amygdala activation during Loss trials, suggesting that amygdala function more strongly mediates bottom-up processing earlier in development when controlling the negative aspects of incentives to support inhibitory control. Together, these results indicate that with development, reward-modulated cognitive control may be supported by incentive processing transitions in the amygdala, and from facilitative to obstructive striatal function during inhibitory control.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This longitudinal fMRI study examined how incentives, age, and antisaccade performance modulate brain activation during inhibitory control from ages 10–20. It found age-related linear and quadratic effects in control/reward regions and an age-by-behavior interaction in frontostriatal regions, with striatal activation associated with better performance in younger participants but worse performance in older participants.

Key findings

  • Antisaccade accuracy improved with age (p < 0.0001), did not differ significantly by incentive condition, and showed a trend for greater accuracy in Reward than Neutral (p < 0.1). Reward and Loss incentive effects on accuracy were correlated, r = 0.545, t(195) = 9.083, p < 0.001; Reward–Neutral difference scores were stable within individuals across visits, ICC = 0.226, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.056, 0.395], while Loss–Neutral difference scores were not, ICC = 0.017, 95% CI [−0.143, 0.192].
  • Model comparison showed adding Age² did not improve fit, increasing AIC by 2.53, 3.23, and 1.40 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively. Adding Behavior and Age × Behavior improved AIC by 7.10, 8.27, and 7.12 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively.
  • Linear age effects were found in PPC, vlPFC, FEF, and amygdala: amygdala activation was negatively correlated with age during Loss trials, FEF activation was positively correlated with age during Loss trials, and PPC showed a U-shaped pattern in Loss trials with a trough during adolescence.
  • Age × Behavior interactions were found in NAcc, caudate, and putamen for neutral trials and in vlPFC for Loss trials: greater activation was associated with better antisaccade performance in younger participants but worse performance in older participants. Inflection ages were 16.9 years for caudate, 19.92 years for NAcc, 17.11 years for left putamen, 16.8 years for right putamen, and 16.02 years for vlPFC.

Methods

  • Accelerated longitudinal fMRI study using an incentivized antisaccade task. The initial sample was 187 participants ages 10–20; the final dataset included 82 subjects (41 females) with two (N = 49) or three (N = 33) visits at approximately 15-month intervals. There were 56 trials each for Reward, Neutral, and Loss conditions across 4 runs, plus 72 partial trials.
  • Imaging used a 3.0-T Siemens Allegra scanner with EPI parameters TR = 1.5 s, TE = 29 ms, flip angle = 70°. Visit-level fixed-effects analyses generated parameter estimates for Reward, Neutral, Loss, Reward > Neutral, and Loss > Neutral; mixed-effects voxelwise regression used bootstrapped parameter estimates with 500 iterations.
  • Analyses focused on 22 a priori ROIs, corrected with FDR q = 0.05. Only correct trials were modeled, with an event duration of 4.5 s collapsing Cue, Preparatory, and Saccade epochs. Inclusion criteria included motion limits, whole-brain coverage, >50% antisaccade accuracy per condition, and ≥20 correct trials per condition.

Limitations

  • The paper states that some interpretations are speculative, specifically that the absence of a striatal Age × Behavior interaction during Reward trials may reflect ceiling effects or distinct reward/loss circuitry, and that more work is needed to confirm generalizability across contexts. It also states future work is important to substantiate the initial amygdala finding.
  • Evident from the text: the final sample was reduced from 187 to 82 participants after accounting for motion, coverage, behavioral measures, trial counts, and visits. Overall excluded trials were 10% (SD = 9%), with a higher proportion in the 10–14 age range (M = 13.9%, SD = 12%) than older groups.
  • Evident from the text: only correct trials were analyzed, epochs were collapsed, and the study used a task-specific antisaccade paradigm with a priori ROIs, which may limit generalization to other inhibitory-control tasks or whole-brain analyses. The paper does not include a formal limitations section.

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Registry

Crossref · 10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.003

Cites

61 of 61 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

0 of 52 cited sources checked · 0 supported · 0 flagged

  • Findingown data

    Reward-Neutral difference scores were significantly correlated within individuals across visits, ICC = 0.226, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.056, 0.395].

    “The results from these tests show that Reward–Neutral difference scores were significantly correlated within individuals across visits, ICC = 0.226, p < 0.05, 95% CI [0.056, 0.395]”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The type of reward selected did not differ by age.

    “The type of reward selected – visa debit cards (46%), cash (39%), iTunes (4%) and Barnes & Noble (4%) gift cards – did not differ by age.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was a trend for greater accuracy in the Reward compared to Neutral condition (p < 0.1).

    “although there was a trend for greater accuracy in the Reward compared to Neutral condition (p < 0.1).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    There was a strong relationship between incentive conditions in difference scores, r = 0.545, t(195) = 9.083, p < 0.001.

    “This correlation showed a strong relationship between incentive conditions, r = 0.545, t(195) = 9.083, p < 0.001”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Performance did not differ by incentive condition.

    “Performance did not differ by incentive condition”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 2
  • May combine two claims. 26
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 15

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    There was a large effect of age on saccade latencies (p < 10−9).

    “Initial analysis of RTs found a large effect of age (p < 10−9)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Activation was found in several oculomotor regions (FEF, putamen, PPC, dlPFC) during Reward, Loss, and Neutral trials.

    “Activation was found in several occulomotor regions involved in the antisaccade task (FEF, putamen, PPC, dlPFC).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Incentive conditions generally showed a decrease in RT compared to neutral, but changes were not significant for Loss (p = 0.110) or Reward (p = 0.091).

    “Although the incentive conditions generally showed a decrease in RT compared to the neutral condition (Fig. 3D), these changes in RT were not significant for the Loss (p = 0.110) or Reward (p = 0.091) conditions.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Adding Behavior and the Age X Behavior interaction to the linear model improved AIC by 7.10, 8.27, and 7.12 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively, demonstrating superior model fit.

    “In contrast, adding Behavior and the Age X Behavior interaction to the linear model improved (decreased) AIC by 7.10, 8.27, and 7.12 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively, demonstrating a superior model fit to the data even after penalizing for additional parameters.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Correct response rate in each condition was good overall and improved with age.

    “Correct response rate (‘accuracy’) in each condition was good overall and improved with age (Fig. 3B).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Addition of Age2 to the linear model did not improve AIC, increasing AIC by 2.53, 3.23, and 1.40 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively, across ROIs.

    “Model comparisons showed that the addition of Age2 to the linear model did not improve AIC, on average increasing AIC by 2.53, 3.23, and 1.40 points for Reward, Neutral, and Loss trials, respectively, across ROIs.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Activation in VLPFC was found to benefit younger subjects and hamper performance in older subjects.

    “Activation in VLPFC, a key region supporting cognitive control (Ridderinkhof et al., 2004), was found to benefit younger subjects and hamper performance in older subjects.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ridderinkhof et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Significant effects of behavior were found in NAcc, caudate, and putamen for neutral trials, and in vlPFC for Loss trials.

    “Significant effects of behavior were found in NAcc, caudate, and putamen, for neutral trials, and in vlPFC for Loss trials (Table 3).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The point of inflection was 16.9 years for caudate (Neutral), 19.92 years for NAcc (Neutral), 17.11 years for left putamen (Neutral), 16.8 years for right putamen (Neutral), and 16.02 years for vlPFC (Loss).

    “The point of inflection (i.e., the age at which activation changed from beneficial to deleterious) was 16.9 years for caudate (Neutral), 19.92 years for NAcc (Neutral), 17.11 years for left putamen (Neutral), 16.8 years for right putamen (Neutral), and 16.02 years for vlPFC (Loss).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    For younger participants, increased activation in NAcc, caudate, putamen, and vlPFC was associated with improved AS performance, but among older participants, increased activation in these regions was associated with worse AS performance.

    “These results demonstrated that for younger participants, increased activation in NAcc, caudate, putamen, and vlPFC was associated with improved AS performance, but among older participants, increased activation in these regions was associated with worse AS performance (Fig. 5).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    During loss, activation in basolateral amygdala decreased and showed a trough during adolescence in PPC.

    “Additionally, during loss, activation in basolateral amygdala decreased and showed a trough during adolescence in PPC.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Associations with age showed predominantly linear associations that engaged different regions for each incentive condition.

    “While similar circuitries were engaged across incentives, associations with age showed predominantly linear associations that engaged different regions for each incentive condition.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In childhood, increased engagement of frontostriatal regions was associated with better performance, but through adolescence this relationship inverted and greater activation was associated with a decline in performance.

    “Results indicated that in childhood, increased engagement of frontostriatal regions was associated with better performance, but through adolescence this relationship inverted and greater activation was associated with a decline in performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Activation increased with age in FEF during loss, and in frontoparietal regions during neutral trials.

    “Activation increased with age in FEF during loss, and in frontoparietal regions during neutral trials.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a rewarded AS task, rewards activated oculomotor circuitry supporting inhibitory control.

    “and rewards activated oculomotor circuitry supporting inhibitory control (Geier et al., 2010).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Geier et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Analyses included only data meeting inclusion criteria: runs with fewer than 15% volumes having greater than 3 mm motion between volumes; visits sharing 90% whole-brain coverage with all other subjects; subject visits with greater than 50% accuracy in antisaccade performance per condition; visits with 20 or more correct antisaccade trials per condition; and participants with 2 or 3 yearly visits.

    “Analyses were refined by only including data meeting the following inclusion criteria: runs with fewer than 15% volumes having greater than 3 mm motion between volumes; visits sharing 90% of whole-brain coverage with all other subjects”
    • Also stated in: § Analyses · plain
      “subject visits with greater than 50% accuracy in antisaccade performance per condition (excluded 1 visit); visits with 20 or more correct antisaccade trials per condition (excluded 5 visits); and participants with 2 or 3 yearly visits.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Inhibitory control is largely available by adolescence but with continued specialization that may undermine cognitive control and influence decision-making.

    “These results suggest that inhibitory control is largely available by adolescence but with continued specialization that may undermine cognitive control and influence decision-making.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    fMRI studies have shown developmental troughs in striatal activation when processing rewards.

    “as well as developmental troughs (Bjork et al., 2004, Bjork et al., 2010, Lamm et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Bjork et al., 2004 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Bjork et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Lamm et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    In a rewarded AS task, behavioral performance was greater for reward than for non-reward trials.

    “In a rewarded AS task, behavioral performance was greater for reward than for non-reward trials”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Geier et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A priori ROIs were selected based on known involvement in antisaccade performance and reward/loss processing.

    “Our analyses focused on a set of a priori ROIs (Table 1) known to be involved in antisaccade performance (i.e., frontal and supplementary eye fields, pre SMA, caudate, and putamen) (Geier et al., 2010, Luna et al., 2001, Velanova et al., 2008, Velanova et al., 2009) and in reward and loss processing (i.e. amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, ventral medial prefrontal cortex, and striatum).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Geier et al., 2010 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Luna et al., 2001 source

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    • cites Velanova et al., 2008 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Behavioral studies indicate peak sensitivity to reward during adolescence.

    “Behavioral studies indicate peak sensitivity to reward during adolescence (Cauffman et al., 2010)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Cauffman et al., 2010 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    When reward is contingent on suppressing a small immediate reward in favor of a larger delayed reward, regions supporting inhibitory control show relatively decreased activation.

    “Alternatively, others have found that when reward is contingent on suppressing an small immediate reward in favor of a larger delayed reward, regions supporting inhibitory control show relatively decreased activation (O’Connor et al., 2012).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites O’Connor et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The AS task elicits increases in dACC activation from childhood into adulthood, and correlates with performance.

    “The AS task elicits increases in dACC activation from childhood into adulthood, and correlates with performance (Ordaz et al., 2013).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ordaz et al., 2013 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    The circuitry underlying processing of losses and gains similarly include anterior cingulate, nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and amygdala.

    “While the circuitry underlying the processing of losses and gains similarly include anterior cingulate, nucleus accumbens (NAcc), and amygdala”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Levin et al., 2012

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    • cites Tom et al., 2007 source

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductown data

    Model fits were compared using mean AIC across voxels from every ROI for each model and from an unconditional intercept-only model.

    “To compare model fits, we collected the mean Akaike information criterion (AIC) across voxels from every ROI for each model and from an unconditional model that included only the intercept.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Study design and conductown data

    Multiple comparisons were corrected using false discovery rate correction with a q-value of 0.05.

    “The resulting z-statistic images for these ROIs were then corrected for multiple comparisons using false discovery rate correction with a q-value of 0.05.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Success in delay of gratification is facilitated by strategies that involve diverting attention from the immediate reward by engaging in other activities.

    “This would be similar to behavioral studies that have found success in delay of gratification to be facilitated by strategies that involve diverting attention from the immediate reward by engaging in other activities, such as making up unrelated games (Mischel et al., 1989).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Mischel et al., 1989

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    For some individuals, reward and loss cues tended to improve performance, whereas for others, incentives tended to degrade performance.

    “such that for some individuals, reward and loss cues tended to improve performance, whereas for others, incentives tended to degrade performance (Fig. 3C).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Relatively less is known about the development processes underlying loss compared to what is known of these processes for reward.

    “Relatively less is known about the development processes underlying loss compared to what is known of these processes for reward (Spear, 2011).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Spear, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationown data

    Adolescents show greater variability in value ratings than younger or older participants.

    “suggesting that, if anything, adolescents show greater variability in their ratings than younger or older participants.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    Spurious effects of outliers were controlled for by resampling individual PEs using the R function boot with 500 iterations.

    “Spurious effects of outliers were controlled for by resampling individual PEs using the R function boot with 500 iterations.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Loss trials may have been more difficult and adults may have supported correct performance by engaging FEF.

    “Loss trials may have been more difficult and adults may have supported correct performance by engaging this crucial region.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Reward circuitry can be activated in the absence of extrinsic incentives when simply making a choice and when difficulty is greater.

    “Reward circuitry can be activated in the absence of extrinsic incentives when simply making a choice (Leotti and Delgado, 2011) and when difficulty is greater (Schouppe et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Leotti and Delgado, 2011 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Schouppe et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    While striatal activity may support cognitive control in childhood when the task is difficult, in adulthood striatal engagement may limit the efficacy of cognitive control circuitry.

    “Hence, while striatal activity may support cognitive control in childhood when the task is difficult, in adulthood striatal engagement may limit the efficacy of cognitive control circuitry.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Optimal mature performance is supported by concise activation of frontostriatal systems, and evidence of increased engagement in adulthood may reflect continued immaturities.

    “These results suggest that optimal mature performance is supported by concise activation of frontostriatal systems, and evidence of increased engagement in adulthood may reflect continued immaturities.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Greater striatal activity supports cognitive control early in development, but it was found to hamper performance in adulthood where engagement of specialized control regions may support optimal control.

    “Results indicated that while greater striatal activity supports cognitive control early in development, it was found to hamper performance in adulthood where engagement of specialized control regions may support optimal control.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Loss trials may contain an emotional component above Neutral and Reward trials that is more effectively curtailed with maturation, and reflected in attenuated ventral amygdala activity.

    “Loss trials may contain an emotional component above Neutral and Reward trials that is more effectively curtailed with maturation, and reflected in attenuated ventral amygdala activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Developmental changes in incentive processing is not peaking in adolescence but may continue to show increased or decreased engagement through young adulthood depending on the region involved.

    “These results suggest that developmental changes in incentive processing is not peaking in adolescence but may continue to show increased or decreased engagement through young adulthood depending on the region involved.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Increased activity in NAcc may be a marker for earlier development supporting better performance, while its continued dependence in adulthood may hamper performance.

    “Similar to the developmental trajectory of findings in VLPFC, increased activity in NAcc may be a marker for earlier development supporting better performance, while its continued dependence in adulthood may hamper performance.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    The BL amygdala has been associated with the throughput of bottom-up processing in mediating consummatory conditioning, information updating, value-encoding, and attentional function.

    “The BL amygdala, with its innervation from sensory regions, as well as from cingulate, insula, and PFC, has been associated with the throughput of bottom-up processing in mediating consummatory conditioning, information updating, value-encoding, as well as participating in attentional function”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Parkes and Balleine, 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pessoa, 2010

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Pickens et al., 2003

      Not checked in the free run.

    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Antisaccade performance may involve circuitry that is more susceptible to change over development or to day-to-day fluctuations, and this circuitry is more heavily engaged during loss than during reward conditions.

    “suggesting that antisaccade performance may involve circuitry that is more susceptible to change over development or to day-to-day fluctuations, and this circuitry is more heavily engaged during loss than during reward conditions.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Adolescence may mark the transition in the balance between facilitative and obstructive striatal function and cognitively-driven amygdala function during inhibitory control, which may further interact with the relative balance between externally and internally motivating processes.

    “Thus, adolescence may mark the transition in the balance between facilitative and obstructive striatal function and cognitively-driven amygdala function during inhibitory control, which may further interact with the relative balance between externally and internally motivating processes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.
    • Rests on an assumption: BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.
    • Rests on an assumption: Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.
    • Rests on an assumption: Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.
42 of 42

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Direct links between real-world risk-taking and brain maturation have yet to be established.

    “Although direct links between real-world risk-taking and brain maturation have yet to be established”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Many prior developmental studies have not compared neural activation patterns due to both task performance and age.

    “many prior studies have not compared neural activation patterns due to both task performance and age”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Most developmental studies have been cross-sectional in design.

    “most developmental studies have been cross-sectional in design”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The point-based approach adjusts for potential differences in subjective value of dollar amounts across age.

    “This point-based approach allowed a separation between trial outcomes and dollar amounts, which was intended better adjust for potential differences in the subjective value of dollar amounts across age.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The antisaccade task measures inhibitory control.

    “This longitudinal study investigated maturation of the neural substrates supporting inhibitory control under incentivized conditions.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    BOLD fMRI activation reflects neural engagement or activity.

    “Overall, results supported some of our hypotheses but not others.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Age-related changes in brain activation reflect developmental maturation.

    “These results suggest that developmental changes in incentive processing is not peaking in adolescence but may continue to show increased or decreased engagement through young adulthood depending on the region involved.”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Reward and loss incentives manipulate motivation.

    “Results showed that incentives affect performance with variability in those who showed improvement and those who showed hampering of performance.”
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Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • An accelerated longitudinal study of antisaccade performance in humans showed that accuracy improved most steeply between ages 10-14, but the authors did not track pubertal status.

    “An accelerated longitudinal design study of antisaccade performance in humans showed that accuracy improved most steeply between ages 10–14, but the authors did not track the pubertal status of participants (Paulsen et al., 2015).”

    From Does puberty mark a transition in sensitive periods for plasticity in the associative neocortex? (2017) · cites this paper as Paulsen et al., 2015

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentt(195) = 9.083reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “t(195) = 9.083, p < .001”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Summary of linear age effects does not match Table 3

    Minor

    The summary names PPC as having a linear age effect, but Table 3 lists a linear age effect for dlPFC instead. PPC appears in Table 4 as a quadratic age effect.

  • Neutral-trial frontoparietal age trend is described in the wrong direction

    Minor

    The discussion says activation increased with age in frontoparietal regions during neutral trials. Table 3 instead lists negative age effects for the neutral-trial dlPFC and vlPFC findings, and no neutral-trial PPC age effect.

  • Amygdala activation is reported for neutral trials but absent from Table 2

    Minor

    The figure caption says amygdala activation was found during all three trial types. Table 2 lists amygdala activation for Reward and Loss, but not Neutral.

3 of 3

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

1 of the 62 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Cited by

Sorted by citations

Related

Authors
Paulsen, D. J., Hallquist, M. N., Geier, C. F., & Luna, B.
Affiliations
  • University of Pittsburgh (US)
  • Pennsylvania State University (US)
Corresponding author
Paulsen, David J.
ORCID
Venue
Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience
Publisher
Elsevier BV
Published
2015-02
Volume
11
Pages
105-115
ISSN
1878-9293 (ISSN-L)
DOI
10.1016/j.dcn.2014.09.003
PMC
PMC4323861
OpenAlex
W1972801047
Cited by
86
References
62
Citations by year
2026: 3 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 4 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 13 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 7 · 2014: 2
FWCI
5.02
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
Locations
  • Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) (submittedVersion, cc-by-sa)
Funders
  • University of Pittsburgh
  • National Institutes of Health (UL1TR000005)
  • National Institute of Mental Health (R01MH080243, K01MH097091)
  • National Institute on Drug Abuse (T32DA031111)
  • National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neurobiology of Language and Bilingualism
Keywords
inhibitory control, cognitive control, incentive processing, reward systems, striatum, age differences, brain development, bottom-up processing, cognitive aging
MeSH terms
Adolescent, Aging, Amygdala, Brain, Child, Cognition, Corpus Striatum, Female, Humans, Inhibition, Psychological, Longitudinal Studies, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Male, Motivation, Reward, Social Behavior, Young Adult

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-10.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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