The role of the anterior insula in adolescent decision making
Open accessAbstract
Much recent research on adolescent decision making has sought to characterize the neurobiological mechanisms that underlie the proclivity of adolescents to engage in risky behavior. One class of influential neurodevelopmental models focuses on the asynchronous development of neural systems, particularly those responsible for self-regulation and reward seeking. While this work has largely focused on the development of prefrontal (self-regulation) and striatal (reward processing) circuitry, the present article explores the significance of a different region, the anterior insular cortex (AIC), in adolescent decision making. Although the AIC is known for its role as a cognitive-emotional hub, and is included in some models of adult self-regulation and reward seeking, the importance of the AIC and its maturation in adolescent risk taking has not been extensively explored. In this article we discuss evidence on AIC development, and consider how age-related differences in AIC engagement may contribute to heightened risk taking during adolescence. Based on this review, we propose a model in which the engagement of adolescents in risk taking may be linked in part to the maturation of the AIC and its connectivity to the broader brain networks in which it participates.
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- Findingcitation
Limited evidence is consistent with the idea that the anterior insular cortex is an important area in the development of reward processing, particularly during anticipation of reward.
“Despite this caveat, we were able to find some limited evidence consistent with the idea that the AIC is an important area in the development of reward processing, particularly during anticipation of reward (see table 1; fig. 2b) [91, 98, 99].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Findingcitation
Several studies do not find age-related differences in anterior insular cortex during reward processing.
“We must acknowledge, however, that there are also several studies that do not find age-related differences in this region [90, 92, 95, 96, 100].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked - Findingcitation
Several identified studies on the developmental and neural underpinnings of reward processing selectively examined striatal functioning using region-of-interest analysis.
“In fact, several of the studies that we identified on the developmental and neural underpinnings of reward processing selectively examined striatal functioning by using an ROI-based analysis [90, 94, 96].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Findingcitation
The developmental response inhibition literature contains considerable evidence of developmental differences in anterior insular cortex recruitment.
“Upon inspection of the developmental response inhibition literature, we find considerable evidence of developmental differences in AIC recruitment [73–77, 79, 84, 85].”
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- cites [84] source
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- Premisecitation
Lovero et al. (2009) showed that increased anterior insular cortex activation during anticipation of touch was positively associated with self-reported ratings of stimulus intensity.
“For example, a study by Lovero et al. [41] (2009) showed that increased AIC activation (as reflected in BOLD signal) during anticipation of touch was positively associated with self-reported ratings of the intensity of the stimulus.”
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- Premisecitation
The insula receives direct input from somatosensory cortex and projects outputs to cortical and subcortical regions including prefrontal cortex, striatum, anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and superior temporal sulcus.
“The insula is known to receive direct input from the somato-sensory cortex and to then project outputs to both cortical and subcortical regions, including the PFC (lPFC and ventral medial PFC, vmPFC), striatum, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), amygdala, and superior temporal sulcus [34–36].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The anterior insular cortex is very likely to contribute to the development of processes involving interplay of cognitive and affective systems, as occurs in risky decision making.
“Thus, we believe that the AIC is very likely to play a part in the development of processes that involve the interplay of cognitive and affective systems, as is thought to occur in the context of risky decision making.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The insula sends outputs to many brain structures essential to deliberative and affective processing and central to dual systems and triadic models of adolescent decision making.
“Thus, the insula sends its outputs to many of the brain structures that are essential to deliberative and affective processing and that are central components of the dual systems and triadic models of adolescent decision making.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The neural reorganization of adolescence does not occur uniformly across the brain.
“While this dramatic neural reorganization begins early in adolescence, it does not occur uniformly across the brain [13].”
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- Interpretationcitation
The relationship between anterior insular cortex anticipatory engagement and self-reported intensity suggests that the anterior insular cortex directly affects how an event is experienced, including subjective arousal and emotionality.
“The relationship between AIC anticipatory engagement and self-reported ratings of the intensity of the experience suggests that the AIC directly impacts the way in which an event is experienced, including the subjective arousal and emotionality evoked by the experience [42, 43].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Major changes in the reward-processing system occur before the prolonged maturation of self-regulation regions, notably lateral prefrontal cortex, is complete.
“The major changes in this reward-processing system are thought to occur prior to the completion of a more prolonged period of maturation exhibited by the brain regions involved in self-regulation, notably the lateral PFC (lPFC) [for review, see 22].”
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- Interpretationcitation
The continuing maturation of the anterior insular cortex during adolescence is evident in changes in its functional connectivity with cognitive control and reward-processing regions.
“The continuing maturation of the AIC during adolescence is also evident in changes in its pattern of functional connectivity with cognitive control and reward-processing regions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Different developmental trajectories within the anterior insular cortex suggest that its ongoing development during adolescence may differentially affect cognitive and affective functioning.
“Different developmental trajectories within the AIC, particularly in subregions implicated in cognitive and affective processes, suggest that ongoing development of the AIC during adolescence may differentially impact cognitive and affective functioning.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The strength of connectivity between insula and striatum during reward anticipation did not differ from that of adults.
“Not only is the relationship between the AIC and striatum established by adolescence, but the strength of connectivity (as indexed by co-activation) between the insula and the striatum during reward anticipation did not differ from that of adults.”
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- Interpretationcitation
The development of the anterior insular cortex may have different implications for cognitive and affective processes during adolescence.
“This also suggests that the development of the AIC may have different implications for cognitive and affective processes during adolescence.”
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One study found that anterior insular cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex are coactivated to a greater degree in adults than in adolescents during a cognitive challenge task.
“One study, for example, found that the AIC and IPFC are coactivated to a greater degree in adults, compared to adolescents, during a cognitive challenge task [66].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The increase in anterior insular cortex recruitment during risk taking in risk-averse individuals may result from a desire to integrate more cognitive and affective information before deciding.
“The increase in AIC recruitment during risk taking in risk averse individuals may be the result of a desire to integrate a greater amount of cognitive and affective information before making a decision.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
A diffusion tensor imaging study demonstrates disparate developmental trends in different fiber projections from the insula.
“A recent investigation of insular development using diffusion tensor imaging [61] likewise demonstrates disparate developmental trends in the different fiber projections from the insula.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Continuing development of the anterior insular cortex may be particularly relevant to the emergence of self-regulatory behaviors, including impulse regulation, during adolescence.
“Continuing development of the AIC may be particularly relevant to the emergence of self-regulatory behaviors, including impulse regulation, during this period of life.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Different patterns of development have been documented within different areas of the insular cortex.
“Similar to findings from whole brain studies, which show different timing and rates of development in various regions [59], different patterns of development have been documented within different areas of the insular cortex [60, 61].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisecitation
Behavioral response inhibition improves linearly from childhood through adulthood.
“The literature on behavioral response inhibition consistently demonstrates that the ability to successfully inhibit a response improves linearly from childhood through adulthood [70–72]”
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Recent neuroimaging evidence shows that the anterior insular cortex's role in cognitive and affective interactions influences how individuals make decisions involving risk.
“Moreover, recent neuroimaging evidence shows that the role of the AIC in cognitive and affective interactions influences how individuals make decisions that involve risk [51, 52].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Premisereasoning
Whether anterior insular cortex recruitment predicts risk taking or risk aversion depends on past experiences, task performance, and individual differences in risk preference and strategy.
“Consistent with this notion, the way in which recruitment of the AIC influences adult decision making and, in particular, whether it predicts risk taking or risk aversion, is dependent on past experiences, task performance, and individual differences in risk preference and strategy.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
Slightly posterior and ventral portions of the insula showed curvilinear thinning, similar to pruning patterns in reward-related regions such as the striatum.
“Meanwhile, slightly posterior and ventral portions of the insula evinced a curvilinear pattern of thinning, similar to pruning patterns found in reward-related regions (the striatum) [63].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The anterior insular cortex is important for integrating emotional and cognitive information during decision making.
“While the adaptive nature of AIC recruitment during decision making does not lead to a simple explanation of its role, it is clear that it is important for integrating emotional and cognitive information during the decision-making process and it is likely that differences in engagement of this region have significant implications for understanding individual differences in risk-taking behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Cho et al. (2013) found that already by adolescence, anterior insular cortex activation can evoke subsequent striatal activation during reward anticipation.
“For example, Cho et al. [27] (2013) found that, already by adolescence, activation of the AIC is able to evoke subsequent activation within the striatum during anticipation of reward.”
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- Interpretationcitation
The existing literature suggests that during adolescence the anterior insular cortex is still undergoing maturational changes in cortical thickness and connectivity that affect its information processing and its involvement with cognitive control and reward-processing regions.
“While admittedly limited, the existing literature suggests that during adolescence the AIC is still undergoing maturational changes (e.g. changes in cortical thickness and connectivity) that impact its ability to process information and its involvement with cognitive control and reward-processing regions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
The insular subregions identified by Shaw et al. closely resemble subregions identified in a meta-analysis of adult insular function during cognitive and emotional processes.
“Importantly, the subregions identified by Shaw et al. [60] closely resemble subregions identified in a recent meta-analysis of adult insular function during cognitive and emotional processes [64].”
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- Premisecitation
The behavioral trend of improving response inhibition generally coincides with linear increases in focal recruitment of lateral prefrontal cortex across development.
“and, though the evidence is a bit mixed, this behavioral trend is generally found to coincide with linear increases in the focal recruitment of the IPFC across this developmental period [73–80, though see also 81–84].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Differences in anterior insular cortex engagement likely have significant implications for understanding individual differences in risk-taking behavior.
“While the adaptive nature of AIC recruitment during decision making does not lead to a simple explanation of its role, it is clear that it is important for integrating emotional and cognitive information during the decision-making process and it is likely that differences in engagement of this region have significant implications for understanding individual differences in risk-taking behavior.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Compared with adults inclined toward risk taking, risk-averse adults show increased anterior insular cortex engagement when taking risks.
“For instance, compared to individuals who are more inclined toward risk taking, adults who are risk averse show increased AIC engagement when taking risks [52].”
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- Premisecitation
Age-related thinning of the anterior insular cortex is significantly correlated with decreases in self-reported impulsivity across adolescence and into early adulthood.
“Indeed, it was recently discovered that age-related thinning of the AIC is significantly correlated with decreases in self-reported impulsivity across adolescence and into early adulthood [28].”
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- Premisecitation
Galvan and McGlennen (2013) found that receipt of an appetitive liquid increased anterior insular cortex and striatal recruitment in adolescents, but not in adults.
“They found that receipt of an appetitive liquid increased AIC and striatal recruitment in adolescents, but not in adults.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Age-related differences in anterior insular cortex engagement may be more easily identified with tasks or paradigms that emphasize the interplay of cognitive and emotional processes, as in risk taking.
“That is, age-related differences in AIC engagement may be more easily identified via tasks or paradigms that emphasize the interplay of cognitive and emotional processes, as is the case with risk taking.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In adolescents, both anterior insular cortex and striatal activation during receipt of sucrose-water was correlated with self-reported pleasure ratings.
“In adolescents, both AIC and striatal activation during receipt of sucrose-water was correlated with self-reported pleasure ratings.”
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- Premisecitation
Adolescence coincides with a peak in reward sensitivity.
“One of the most prominent and well-documented neurobiological characteristics of adolescence is that it coincides with a peak in reward sensitivity [for review, see 23, 24].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
The development of response inhibition may result from continuing maturation of the cognitive control network more broadly, especially the interrelationship between anterior insular cortex and lateral prefrontal cortex.
“Instead, the development of this capacity may be the result of continuing maturation of the cognitive control network more broadly, and especially the interrelationship between the AIC and the IPFC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
Changes in reward sensitivity during adolescence are believed to result from early maturation of the reward-processing system including the striatum, making adolescents hypersensitive to opportunities for and receipt of rewards.
“Changes in reward sensitivity during adolescence are believed to be a result of early maturation of the brain’s reward-processing system, including the striatum, which makes adolescents hypersensitive to opportunities for, and receipt of, rewards [90, 91].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checked - Interpretationreasoning
Failure to report whole-brain analyses precludes identifying other regions that may account for developmental differences in reward sensitivity, such as the anterior insular cortex.
“While the use of ROI-based analyses may be important for theory-driven, a priori, hypothesis testing, failure to report whole-brain analyses precludes the possibility of identifying other regions that may also account for developmental differences in reward sensitivity, such as the AIC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
The pervasiveness of anterior insular cortex differences across developmental studies of response inhibition suggests that lateral prefrontal cortex maturation is not uniquely explanatory of age-related improvements in response inhibition.
“The pervasiveness of AIC differences across developmental studies of response inhibition suggests that maturation of the IPFC is not uniquely explanatory of age-related improvements in response inhibition.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
Even if connectivity between anterior insular cortex and striatum reaches an adult-like state by adolescence, reward opportunities may still evoke stronger recruitment of both regions during adolescence.
“These two studies, which both show age-dependent differences in AIC (and striatal) activation during reward processing, illustrate that even if connectivity between the AIC and the striatum reaches an adult-like state by adolescence [27, 67], reward opportunities may still evoke stronger recruitment of both regions during adolescence.”
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Van Leijenhorst et al. found that when presented with the possibility of obtaining a reward, adolescents but not adults demonstrated increased recruitment of both anterior insular cortex and striatum.
“When presented with the possibility of obtaining a reward, the adolescents, but not the adults, demonstrated increased recruitment of both the AIC and the striatum.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
Age-related differences in anterior insular cortex recruitment during response inhibition suggest that the functionality of the anterior insular cortex, at least as related to response inhibition, is still maturing during adolescence.
“Age-related differences in AIC recruitment during response inhibition suggest that the functionality of the AIC, at least as it is related to response inhibition, is still maturing during adolescence 2.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisereasoning
Maturational differences in anterior insula engagement during risky decision making are as common as developmental differences in inferior prefrontal cortex and striatum recruitment.
“Finally, as seen in the response inhibition literature, maturational differences in AIC engagement during risky decision making are as prevalent as developmental differences in the recruitment of the IPFC and striatum”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In Somerville et al. (2011), adolescents made significantly more inhibition errors than adults during affectively cued inhibition trials.
“During affectively cued inhibition trials, adolescents made significantly more inhibition errors than adults.”
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- Premisecitation
Two studies in the literature report that anterior insula cortex engagement rises with age.
“we find two studies showing increases in AIC engagement with age (see fig. 2c) [104, 105]”
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In Somerville et al. (2011), across age groups, increased anterior insula recruitment during inhibition predicted the number of errors.
“Finally, across age groups, increased recruitment of the AIC during inhibition predicted the number of errors (i.e. stronger recruitment of the AIC during affectively cued inhibition trials resulted in worse performance).”
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- Premisecitation
In Eshel et al. (2007), adults had greater anterior insula activation than adolescents during risk taking.
“However, adults demonstrated increased AIC activation compared to adolescents during risk taking.”
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- Premisecitation
These studies highlight the role of the anterior insula during the interplay of cognitive and affective processes.
“These studies highlight the role of the AIC during the interplay of cognitive and affective processes.”
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The relative immaturity of the anterior insula and its relationship with cognitive control regions leaves adolescents vulnerable to affectively driven behaviors such as reckless risk taking.
“More specifically, we suggest that the relative immaturity of the AIC and its relationship with cognitive control regions leaves adolescents vulnerable to affectively driven behaviors such as reckless risk taking.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim - Premisecitation
In Christakou et al. (2011), the tendency to choose large delayed rewards over small immediate rewards increased with age.
“Behaviorally, the tendency to opt for large, delayed choices rather than small, immediate choices increased with age, a pattern seen in other studies [see 110].”
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The relationship between the anterior insula and striatum may already be adequately developed by mid-adolescence, as shown by similar anterior insula responses in adolescents and adults during reward anticipation.
“the developmental literature suggests that the relationship between the AIC and striatum may already be adequately developed by mid-adolescence, as demonstrated by similar AIC responses in adolescents and adults during reward anticipation.”
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The available body of research supports the proposed developmental model.
“Although this hypothesis requires some speculation informed by an admittedly sparse literature, the available body of research supports this proposed developmental model [28, 68, 98, 107–109].”
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In Christakou et al. (2011), age-related decreases in impulsive choices were associated with increases in medial prefrontal cortex recruitment and decreases in ventral striatum and anterior insula recruitment.
“Age-related decreases in impulsive choices were associated with increases in mPFC recruitment and with decreases in ventral striatum and AIC recruitment.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The combination of adult-like anterior insula-striatal connectivity and still-developing anterior insula-prefrontal connectivity may promote risk taking in adolescence by biasing the anterior insula to respond more readily to affective or rewarding stimuli.
“We therefore propose that the combination of adult-like connectivity between the AIC and the striatum, and the still-developing connectivity between the AIC and pre-frontal regions, may promote risk taking in adolescence by biasing the AIC to respond more readily to affective or rewarding stimuli.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationreasoning
Immaturity of the anterior insula-inferior prefrontal cortex relationship contributes to adolescents' inability to adequately engage the cognitive control system and self-regulatory processes during risky decision making.
“we posit that the immaturity of the AIC-IPFC relationship, as demonstrated in developmental studies of response inhibition as well as the connectivity findings, contributes to the inability of adolescents to adequately engage the cognitive control system and the associated self-regulatory processes during risky decision making.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The Eshel et al. findings suggest that prolonged anterior insula engagement in adolescents may reflect continuing maturation of deliberative processes, including harm avoidance, rather than hypersensitivity to rewards.
“However, they also suggest that protracted engagement of the AIC in adolescents might be a reflection of continuing maturation of deliberative processes, including harm avoidance, rather than hypersensitivity to rewards.”
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- Interpretationcitation
The Christakou et al. results support a possible developmental shift from anterior insula and striatum engagement during impulsive choices to increased anterior insula-prefrontal cortex connectivity during more considered choices.
“Together, these results provide support for a possible developmental shift from engagement of the AIC and striatum during impulsive choices to increased connectivity between the AIC and the PFC during more considered ones.”
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- Premisereasoning
The structure and function of the anterior insula continue to mature across adolescence.
“Based on the developmental neuroimaging literature reviewed here, it is clear that the structure and function of the AIC continues to mature across adolescence.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Interpretationcitation
The Eshel et al. findings support the idea that anterior insula recruitment during risky decision making differs between adolescence and adulthood.
“These findings support the notion that there are differences in AIC recruitment during risky decision making between adolescence and adulthood.”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The relative immaturity of the anterior insula may bias adolescents towards affectively driven decisions.
“we suggest that the relative immaturity of this cognitive-emotional hub may bias adolescents towards affectively driven decisions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim - Premisecitation
In Somerville et al. (2011), functional connectivity between the anterior insula and striatum was significant in adolescents but not in children or adults during affective cues.
“Follow-up functional connectivity analyses demonstrated significant functional connectivity between the AIC and striatum in adolescents, but not in children or adults, during affective cues.”
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- Premisecitation
The participation of the anterior insula in cognitive control, even without an obvious demand for emotional processing, distinguishes it from the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the somatic marker view.
“We note, however, that the participation of AIC in cognitive control, even in circumstances where there is no obvious demand for emotional processing (e.g. during simple response inhibition) distinguishes this area from the vmPFC in the somatic marker view of Bechara and Damasio [106].”
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- Interpretationreasoning
The maturational imbalance between adult-like anterior insula-striatal connectivity and still-developing anterior insula-inferior prefrontal cortex connectivity increases the likelihood that adolescents will engage in impulsive behavior for immediate rewards rather than deliberative, goal-directed behaviors when faced with a risky choice.
“We posit that the maturational imbalance between adult-like AIC-striatal connectivity and the still-developing AIC-IPFC connectivity increases the likelihood that, when faced with a risky choice, adolescents will engage in impulsive behavior in the pursuit of immediate rewards rather than more deliberative, goal-directed behaviors.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim- Rests on an assumption: The connectivity between the reward-processing and cognitive-control systems is relatively weak during adolescence.
- Premisecitation
In Somerville et al. (2011), affective cues elicited heightened striatal and anterior insula activation in adolescents compared to adults.
“In addition, the presentation of the affective cues elicited heightened striatal and AIC activation in adolescents compared to adults.”
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- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
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FindingreasoningStudies often implicate the anterior insular cortex, but their discussion and interpretation typically focus on other regions.
“These studies often implicate the AIC, but their discussion and interpretation of findings typically focus on other regions.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Findingnone givenIn many instances, information about anterior insular cortex engagement is contained in tables or supplementary material.
“However, in many instances information regarding AIC engagement is contained in tables or supplementary material.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
Findingown dataThe review identified 15 papers on response inhibition, 12 on reward anticipation, and 6 on risky decision making for inclusion.
“Using these criteria we identified 15 papers on response inhibition, 12 on reward anticipation and 6 on risky decision making for inclusion in our review.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).
Findingnone givenFew studies of adolescent risk taking and decision making explicitly focus on the anterior insular cortex.
“Few studies of adolescent risk taking and decision making explicitly focus on the AIC.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimMay combine two claims.
FindingcitationAge-related increases in anterior insular cortex recruitment during adolescence are just as consistent as age-related increases in lateral prefrontal cortex recruitment, with several studies showing concomitant developmental differences in both.
“In fact, from the studies we found it seems that age-related increases in AIC recruitment during adolescence are just as consistent as age-related increases in IPFC recruitment (see table 1), with several studies showing concomitant developmental differences in both the AIC and IPFC [73–77, 79, 84].”
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FindingcitationAmong studies reporting age-dependent effects in anterior insular cortex activation during response inhibition, seven report significantly weaker engagement in adolescents than adults, while only three report stronger activation in adolescents than adults.
“Of the studies reporting on age-dependent effects in AIC activation during response inhibition, seven studies report significantly weaker functional engagement of the AIC in adolescents compared to adults [73–75, 77, 79, 84, 85], while only three find stronger AIC activation among adolescents than adults [75–77]1.”
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FindingcitationOnly a handful of studies have explored age differences in brain activity during a risk-taking task, and evidence for mutual involvement of both lateral prefrontal cortex and striatum during risky decision making is scarce.
“Only a handful of studies (see table 1) have explored age differences in brain activity during the performance of a risk-taking task [97, 101–105], and evidence for mutual involvement of both the IPFC and striatum during risky decision making is scarce.”
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FindingcitationOnly one study has reported age-related differences as hypothesized by current neurodevelopmental models in both reward-processing and cognitive control regions, and at least for the striatum the age difference was observed only when social context was manipulated.
“Indeed, only one study has reported age-related differences as hypothesized by current neurodevelopmental models (increased engagement of reward processing regions and less engagement of cognitive control regions in adolescents compared to adults) in both regions [103] and, at least for the striatum, the age difference was only observed when social context was manipulated.”
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FindingcitationOnly one other study involving a risk-taking task demonstrates age differences in both prefrontal cortex and striatum during risky decision making, but this study showed striatal engagement increasing with age.
“Only one other study involving a risk-taking task demonstrates age differences in both the PFC and striatum during risky decision making however, this study showed striatal engagement increasing with age [105].”
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PremisecitationThe anterior insular cortex is thought to act as a hub integrating cognitive and emotional information and to have structural and functional connections to regions prominent in developmental models, including lateral prefrontal cortex and striatum.
“This region is thought to act as a hub involved in the integration of cognitive and emotional information [10], and to have structural and functional connections to regions that feature prominently in current developmental models of adolescent decision making (e.g., the IPFC and striatum).”
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PremisecitationActivity in the anterior insular cortex is common in studies of cognitive control and inhibitory processing and in studies of reward sensitivity.
“Indeed, activity in the AIC is a common feature in studies of cognitive control and inhibitory processing [7, 46–50] and reward sensitivity [8, 9].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 8 sources checked- cites [7] source
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- cites [46] source
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- cites [48] source
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- cites [49] source
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- cites [8] source
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- cites [9] source
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PremisecitationTheorists propose that the anterior insular cortex acts as an integrative hub coordinating recruitment of task- and context-relevant brain networks in response to arousal.
“More recently, theorists have proposed that AIC function goes beyond simply interpreting signals of arousal, and have argued that this region acts as an ‘integrative hub’ which is centrally involved in coordinating the recruitment of task- and context-relevant brain networks in response to arousal [10].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] source
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PremisecitationThe dual system hypothesis holds that a maturational imbalance between heightened sensation seeking and still-maturing self-regulation makes adolescents susceptible to risky behavior.
“The crux of the dual system hypothesis is that the maturational imbalance during adolescence between heightened sensation seeking and a still-maturing capacity for self-regulation makes adolescents particularly susceptible to engage in risky behaviors [for review, see 25].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
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PremisecitationAround puberty, the human brain undergoes a major reorganization of neural structures, networks, and functioning.
“Around the onset of puberty, the human brain is known to undergo a major reorganization of neural structures, networks, and functioning [11, 12].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationDual systems models emphasize asynchronous development of the neural systems underlying sensation seeking and self-regulation.
“Dual systems models highlight the asynchronous development of the neural systems that underlie sensation seeking – the tendency to seek varied, novel, complex and intense sensations and experiences [20] – and self-regulation – the deliberate modulation of one’s thoughts, feelings or actions in the pursuit of planned goals [21, 22].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedProbably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe triadic model highlights blunted amygdala engagement during adolescence, and recent reviews also consider the thalamus and insula in the harm avoidance network.
“One such view, referred to as the triadic model, highlights the blunted engagement of the amygdala during adolescence (recent reviews also consider the potential role of the thalamus and insula in the harm avoidance network) [26].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [26] source
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PremisecitationOne view of anterior insular cortex function highlights its involvement in the subjective experience of arousal.
“Accordingly, one view of AIC function highlights its involvement in the subjective experience of arousal (feelings experienced as a result of an event or stimulus) [38–40].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe anterior insula receives direct projections from somatosensory regions but is involved in conscious representation of bodily sensations and regulation of arousal.
“The anterior portion of the insula also receives direct projections from somatosensory regions, but is involved in the conscious representation of these bodily sensations and in the regulation of arousal [32, 37].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAt least in adulthood, the anterior insular cortex participates in multiple brain networks and varies its functional involvement according to stimulus environment and task demands.
“That is, at least in adulthood, this region participates in multiple brain networks and varies its functional involvement with these networks according to the nature of the stimulus environment and task demands.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [10] source
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PremisecitationThe posterior insula receives abundant projections from somatosensory regions and is involved in visceral sensations such as pain.
“The posterior insula receives an abundance of projections directly from somatosensory regions and is involved in visceral sensations such as pain [32].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [32] source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn dual systems models, maturation of reward centers including the striatum occurs early in adolescence around puberty and is hypothesized to increase reward sensitivity and sensation seeking.
“Within this framework, the maturation of reward centers in the brain, localized to midline dopaminergic regions, including the striatum, is thought to occur early in adolescence, around the time of puberty, and is hypothesized to evoke an increase in reward sensitivity that results in more frequent sensation seeking [for reviews, see 23, 24].”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe insula is implicated in diverse functions relevant to adolescent decision making, including attention, sexual attraction or romance, language, social experiences, and motivation or reward.
“yet it is implicated in a markedly diverse range of functions that are relevant to current theories of adolescent decision making, such as attention [7], sexual attraction/romance [29], language [30], social experiences [31] and motivation/reward [8], among others [for review, see 32].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationAnterior insular cortex activation precedes and directly influences prefrontal activation during response inhibition and striatal activation during reward anticipation.
“The notion that the AIC may govern the engagement of specialized brain networks to which it is connected finds support in evidence that activation of the AIC precedes, and directly influences, activation of prefrontal regions during response inhibition [44] and activation of the striatum during reward anticipation [27].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationA resting-state connectivity study found that a network including anterior insular cortex, dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, anterior prefrontal cortex, and thalamus was already established by adolescence, but inter-network strength including the anterior insular cortex-prefrontal cortex pathway continued to increase with age.
“For example, a study examining resting state connectivity within a network including the AIC, the dorsal ACC, the anterior PFC and the thalamus found that although the network was already established by adolescence, inter-network strength, including the specific pathway between the AIC and PFC, continued to increase with age [65].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [65] source
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The quote only partly states this claim.
InterpretationcitationThe maturation of impulse control may be specific to the anterior insular cortex.
“Although these findings suggest that the maturation of impulse control may be AIC specific, it is possible that the relation between the development of the AIC and the development of impulse control reflects the strengthening of the entire cognitive control network during adolescence, including the connection between the AIC and IPFC.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationStevens et al. (2009) demonstrated that a network composed of insula, striatum, anterior cingulate cortex, and temporal lobe was already operational by adolescence, but its interconnectivity continued to strengthen with age into young adulthood.
“Using a resting-state connectivity approach, Stevens et al. [69] (2009) demonstrated that a network composed of the insula, striatum, ACC and temporal lobe was already operational by adolescence but, like the control network observed by Fair et al. [65] (2007), the interconnectivity of this network continued to strengthen with increases in age into young adulthood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationShaw et al. (2008) found that the most anterior portion of the insula exhibited linear thinning across adolescence, suggesting ongoing maturation similar to cognitive control regions.
“Using cortical thickness measurements as a marker of neural maturity (thinner cortex is associated with greater neural maturity), Shaw et al. [60] (2008) found that the most anterior portion of the insula (not anatomically defined in the paper, however) exhibited a linear pattern of thinning across adolescence, suggesting that this region undergoes ongoing maturation across this developmental peri”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationTask-dependent connectivity findings point to developmental changes in the relationship between anterior insular cortex and striatum, but suggest this connection may have reached maturity by midadolescence adequate to support adult-like functions.
“Task-dependent connectivity findings also point to developmental changes in the relationship between the AIC and the striatum, but suggest that this connection may have reached a state of maturity by midadolescence that is adequate to support adult-like functions [27, 67].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
PremisecitationMaturation of brain regions supporting response inhibition is thought to underlie an eventual decline in risk-taking behavior.
“In the developmental decision-making literature, the maturation of brain regions supporting response inhibition is thought to underlie an eventual decline in risk-taking behavior [for review, see 22 ].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [22] source
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InterpretationreasoningThe relationship between anterior insular cortex development and impulse control development may reflect strengthening of the entire cognitive control network, including the anterior insular cortex-lateral prefrontal cortex connection.
“Although these findings suggest that the maturation of impulse control may be AIC specific, it is possible that the relation between the development of the AIC and the development of impulse control reflects the strengthening of the entire cognitive control network during adolescence, including the connection between the AIC and IPFC.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
Study design and conductnone givenOnly activations that survived statistical corrections were included in the review.
“Only activations that survived statistical corrections were included.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationThe anterior insular cortex has been shown to act in cooperation with reward-processing areas including anterior cingulate cortex, striatum, and thalamus, and its involvement with these regions appears dependent on age.
“Specifically, the AIC has been shown to act in cooperation with several reward-processing areas (ACC, striatum and thalamus [27, 67–69]) and, importantly, its involvement with these regions appears to be dependent on age [69].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn that diffusion tensor imaging study, decreased fiber density across development was observed in several insular projections, including the connection from anterior insular cortex to frontal regions, whereas no changes were seen in connectivity to subcortical regions such as the striatum.
“A general pattern of decreased fiber density across development, which might be interpreted as the downstream consequence of cortical pruning, was observed in several insular projections, including the connection from the AIC to several frontal regions, whereas no changes in fiber density were seen in connectivity to subcortical regions such as the striatum [61].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [61] source
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InterpretationcitationIndications of a strengthening anterior insular cortex-lateral prefrontal cortex connection during adolescence and a link between anterior insular cortex cortical thinning and self-reported impulse control suggest that anterior insular cortex maturation may be essential to growth of the ability to inhibit unintended or undesirable responses.
“Indications of a strengthening connection between the AIC and IPFC during adolescence [66], and of a link between AIC cortical thinning and self-reported impulse control [28], suggest that AIC maturation may also be essential to the growth of the ability to inhibit unintended or undesirable responses.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checkedClassified as probably not a substantial claim.
InterpretationreasoningAnother possibility is that the simplistic nature of reward-processing tasks may not require the integration of cognitive and affective information that may contribute to age differences in anterior insular cortex activation.
“Given the role of the AIC in cognitive-emotional interactions, another possibility is that the simplistic nature of reward-processing tasks may not require the integration of cognitive and affective information that may be a critical contributor to age differences in activation in this region.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimClassified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.
PremisecitationCurrent developmental theories posit that increases in risky behaviors during adolescence result from a maturational imbalance between neural systems underlying sensation-seeking and self-regulatory behaviors, leading adolescents to disproportionately activate appetitive, reward-seeking circuitry rather than deliberative, cognitive control circuitry during risky decision making, particularly under
“Current developmental theories posit that increases in risky behaviors during adolescence are a result of the maturational imbalance between neural systems underlying sensation-seeking and self-regulatory behaviors, which leads adolescents to disproportionately activate appetitive, reward-seeking circuitry rather than deliberative, cognitive control circuitry during risky decision making,”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [25] source
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PremisecitationAdults showed more anterior insular cortex activation during receipt of an aversive liquid, which was unrelated to the self-reported rating of the experience.
“Conversely, adults showed more AIC activation during receipt of an aversive liquid (salt-water), which was unrelated to the self-reported rating of the experience.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [98] source
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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.
InterpretationcitationIt is possible that both structural and functional connectivity between anterior insular cortex and reward-processing regions is adequately mature during adolescence, so the anterior insular cortex exhibits adult-like engagement during reward anticipation.
“It is possible that both the structural and functional connectivity between the AIC and reward processing regions is adequately mature during adolescence [27] and that the AIC therefore exhibits adult-like engagement during anticipation of reward.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [27] source
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PremisecitationRubia et al. (2006) demonstrated that during incongruent trials adults recruited the anterior insular cortex significantly more than adolescents, an effect correlated with age, and increased anterior insular cortex activation was related to fewer incongruent task errors.
“For example, using the Simon task (spatial or motor Stroop), Rubia et al. [77] (2006), demonstrated that during incongruent trials, which require suppression of a prepotent response, adults recruited the AIC significantly more than did adolescents, an effect that was also correlated with age when treated as a continuous variable. Across all subjects, increased AIC activation was also related to”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [77] source
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InterpretationcitationThese findings suggest that the anterior insular cortex may be more involved in appetitive processes during adolescence, but may shift to involvement in harm avoidance processes in adulthood.
“These findings suggest that the AIC may be more involved in appetitive processes during adolescence, but may then shift to involvement in harm avoidance processes in adulthood.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claimMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIncreased reward sensitivity during adolescence is believed to underlie increases in sensation seeking, attention to social information, inability to delay gratification, and risky decision making.
“Increased reward sensitivity during adolescence is believed to underlie increases in sensation seeking [86], attention to social information [87], the inability to delay gratification [86] and risky decision making [88, 89].”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checkedMay combine two claims.
PremisecitationIn Christakou et al. (2011), the shift from immediate to delayed choice was associated with increased anterior insula-medial prefrontal cortex connectivity and strengthened ventromedial prefrontal cortex-striatal connectivity.
“The shift from immediate to delayed choice was also associated with increased connectivity between the AIC and the mPFC in addition to the strengthening of vmPFC and striatal connectivity.”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [107] source
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PremisecitationIn Eshel et al. (2007), adolescents and adults did not differ in risk-taking behavior or in inferior prefrontal cortex or striatal engagement during risky decision making.
“Overall, there were no group differences in risk-taking behavior or in IPFC or striatal engagement during risky decision making (i.e. decision making where the risky portion of the wheel was subsequently chosen).”
Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked- cites [104] source
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InterpretationreasoningThe bias towards reward-processing regions during adolescence may result in heightened coactivation of the anterior insula and striatum and/or functional connectivity between these regions during decision making.
“Despite the adult-like state of AIC-striatal connectivity, the bias towards reward-processing regions during adolescence may result in heightened coactivation of the AIC and striatum and/or functional connectivity between these regions during decision making.”
Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
The paper relies on this without support.
The connectivity between the reward-processing and cognitive-control systems is relatively weak during adolescence.
“Further adding to this affective bias during adolescence is the relatively weak connectivity that exists between the reward and cognitive control systems.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The anterior insula is known to show specific activation patterns during adolescence.
“it is known to show specific activation patterns during adolescence (Smith et al., 2014).”
From Cognitive flexibility in adolescence: Neural and behavioral mechanisms of reward prediction error processing in adaptive decision making during development (2015) · cites this paper as Smith et al., 2014
The citation lists haven’t been fetched yet
References 111 · Cited by 110
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- 10.1038/13158 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1002/hbm.20237 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1002/dev.20445 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1002/hbm.21036 · DOI · Paper page
- 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.04.001 · DOI · Paper page
- Authors
- Smith, A. R., Steinberg, L., & Chein, J.
- Affiliations
- Temple University (US)
- Venue
- Developmental Neuroscience
- Publisher
- S. Karger AG
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 36
- Issue
- 3-4
- Pages
- 196-209
- ISSN
- 0378-5866 (ISSN-L)
- 1421-9859
- PMC
- PMC5544351
- OpenAlex
- W1992488500
- Semantic Scholar
- 79acfe432fd4bb2af5f286bc40fa562a9921adfd
- Cited by
- 110
- References
- 111
- Citations by year
- 2026: 5 · 2025: 11 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 8 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 8 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 11 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 7 · 2016: 10 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 3
- FWCI
- 0.97
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Developmental Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (R01AA020006)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- anterior insula, adolescent decision-making, risk-taking, brain development, self-regulation, reward processing, cognitive-emotional integration, brain network connectivity, age differences
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Cerebral Cortex, Decision Making, Humans, Reward, Risk-Taking
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