Learning to trust: trust and attachment in early psychosis
Abstract
Background Distrust and social dysfunction are characteristic in psychosis and may arise from attachment insecurity, which is elevated in the disorder. The relationship between trust and attachment in the early stages of psychosis is unknown, yet could help to understand interpersonal difficulties and disease progression. This study aimed to investigate whether trust is reduced in patients with early psychosis and whether this is accounted for by attachment avoidance and attachment anxiety. Method We used two trust games with a cooperative and unfair partner in a sample of 39 adolescents with early psychosis and 100 healthy controls. Results Patients had higher levels of attachment anxiety, but the groups did not differ in attachment avoidance. Basic trust was lower in patients than controls, as indicated by lower initial investments. During cooperation patients increased their trust towards levels of controls, i.e. they were able to learn and to override initial suspiciousness. Patients decreased their trust less than controls during unfair interactions. Anxious attachment was associated with higher basic trust and higher trust during unfair interactions and predicted trust independent of group status. Discussion Patients showed decreased basic trust but were able to learn from the trustworthy behaviour of their counterpart. Worries about the acceptance by others and low self-esteem are associated with psychosis and attachment anxiety and may explain behaviour that is focuse…
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Mistrust is a likely additional factor in the relationship between insecure attachment and paranoia.
“Mistrust is a likely candidate for this relationship, as it is a subcomponent of the paranoia spectrum often present in subclinical populations (Bebbington et al., 2013; Bell & O’Driscoll, 2018), and insecure attachment styles are associated with reduced interpersonal trust (Fett et al., 2016; Mikulincer, 1995, 1998).”
From Mistrust and negative self‐esteem: Two paths from attachment styles to paranoia. (2021) · cites this paper as Fett et al., 2016
Insecure attachment styles are associated with reduced interpersonal trust.
“insecure attachment styles are associated with reduced interpersonal trust (Fett et al., 2016; Mikulincer, 1995, 1998).”
From Mistrust and negative self‐esteem: Two paths from attachment styles to paranoia. (2021) · cites this paper as Fett et al., 2016
Attachment avoidance reflects a negative view of others, whereas attachment anxiety reflects a negative view of oneself.
“Attachment avoidance reflects negative view of others, whereas attachment anxiety reflects a negative view of oneself (Fett et al., 2016)”
From Mistrust and negative self‐esteem: Two paths from attachment styles to paranoia. (2021) · cites this paper as Fett et al., 2016
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der Teen, A. W., Lemmers-Jansen, I. L. J., Oorschot, M., & A, L. K. M. (2021) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.12327 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Restoring Trust for People With Psychosis Through Psychotherapy
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Trust and psychosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis
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A Computational Model of Non-optimal Suspiciousness in the Minnesota Trust Game
Kazinka, R., Vilares, I., & MacDonald, A. W. (2022) · Computational Psychiatry · doi:10.5334/cpsy.82 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Zhao, J., Tadros, E., Sohn, A., Lucena, C., & Cochren‐Albright, K. (2025) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287251330784 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
De-Rationalising DelusionsPreprint
Bell, V., Raihani, N., & Wilkinson, S. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/4p9zs · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Experimentally-Induced Social Threat Increases Paranoid ThinkingPreprint
Saalfeld, V., Ramadan, Z., Bell, V., & Raihani, N. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/jxkv3 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Trust learning in the repeated trust game: A meta‐analytic study
Duncan, C., Sganzerla, L., Kaltwasser, L., & Dziobek, I. (2025) · British Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjop.70045 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Liu, H., Pan, X., Huang, X., Tian, H., Shao, X., Wang, D., Wen, L., Bao, C., Fang, X., & Yi, Z. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1433763 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Abramov, G., Kautz, J. D., Miellet, S., & Deane, F. P. (2022) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-022-09965-9 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Rutar, M., Naterer, A., & Lavrič, M. (2025) · Journal of Trust Research · doi:10.1080/21515581.2025.2456270 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Lemmers-Jansen, I. L. J., & Fett, A.-K. J. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770880.022 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Self-citationParanoia and conspiracy: group cohesion increases harmful intent attribution in the Trust GamePreprint
Greenburgh, A., Bell, V., & Raihani, N. (2018) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mgzjr · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Neurocomputational mechanisms of maladaptive behaviors in loneliness
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Bellucci, G., Keramati, M., Hanssen, E., & Fett, A.-K. J. (2025) · Communications Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44271-025-00384-6 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationChokhani, R., Lloyd, A., Viding, E. M., Gerin, M. I., & McCrory, E. J. P. (2026) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2026.102722 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
The Influence of Trial-By-Trial Feedback on Trust in Health, First-Episode and Chronic Psychosis
Lemmers-Jansen, I. L. J., Wichmann, R. J., Perizonius, S., & Shergill, S. S. (2022) · Games · doi:10.3390/g13050059 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationPropiedades psicométricas de la Escala de Confianza Diádica en personas gays y lesbianas en pareja
Escobar, N., Guzmán‐González, M., & Calderón, C. (2022) · CES Psicología · doi:10.21615/cesp.5953 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Raihani, N., Kamboj, S. K., Peniket, M. J., Norman, J., Öztürk, O. C., Iskandar, G., & Bell, V. (2023) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-023-06476-7 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Li, F., Chiu, P. H., & King‐Casas, B. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770880.014 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Willingness to trust is reduced by loneliness and paranoiaPreprint
Bellucci, G., Keramati, M., Hanssen, E., & Fett, A.-K. J. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/vnqys · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of migration and social environments in the risk of psychotic disorders
Dykxhoorn, J. L. (2019) · UCL Discovery (University College London)
Attachement et psychiatrie de l’enfant
Dias, P., & Carneiro, A. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-2-294-77630-4.00009-0
Neuropathological Level of Trust
Krüeger, F. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770880.021
Neurocharacteristic Level of Trust
Krüeger, F. (2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108770880.012
A Dynamic-Maturational Framework for the Study of Psychosis and Attachment Theory
Jack, A. H., & Wilson, S. A. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychopathology · doi:10.1177/20438087221142456 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Apego y psicosis: una revisión sistemática para un modelo bio-psico-social
Balmaseda, M. A. (2023) · Clínica e Investigación Relacional · doi:10.21110/19882939.2023.170210
Bridging Trust and Paranoia: A Closer Look at Subclinical Phenomena
Singh, M. N. K., & Rathore, N. S. (2020) · International Journal of Indian Psychology · doi:10.25215/1104.075
12. Youth in a Broader Socio-Cultural Context
Lavrič, M., Gvozdanović, A., & Godina, V. V. (2025) · doi:10.18690/um.ff.7.2025.12
Relationship Between Cognitive Impairment and Negative Symptoms in Schizophrenia
Melillo, A., Perrottelli, A., Mucci, A., & Galderisi, S. (2025) · Comprehensive approach to psychiatry · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-06209-3_14
de-la-Higuera-Gonzalez, P., Allefeld, C., de la Torre‐Luque, A., Guillén, A. I., Díaz‐Marsá, M., & Fett, A.-K. J. (2026) · British Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjc.70027
Self-citationde With, J., van der Eng, K., Sommer, I. E., van der Pluijm, M., Schirmbeck, F. N., & de Haan, L. (2026) · Early Intervention in Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/eip.70152
- Authors
- Fett, A.-K. J., Shergill, S. S., Korver-Nieberg, N., Yakub, F., Gromann, P. M., & Krabbendam, L.
- Affiliations
- King's College London (GB)
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Fett, A.-K. J.
- Venue
- Psychological Medicine
- Publisher
- Cambridge University Press (CUP)
- Published
- 2016-02-22
- Volume
- 46
- Issue
- 7
- Pages
- 1437-1447
- ISSN
- 0033-2917 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8978
- OpenAlex
- W2323105404
- Cited by
- 69
- References
- 74
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 8 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 3 · 2022: 7 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 18 · 2018: 6 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 8.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Medicine (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- VU Research Portal (publishedVersion)
- City Research Online (City University London) (acceptedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Schizophrenia research and treatment
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Psychoanalysis and Psychopathology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Attachment and Relationship Dynamics
- Keywords
- early psychosis, trust, attachment anxiety, attachment avoidance, basic trust, trust game, social dysfunction, adolescents, interpersonal problems, self-esteem, conciliation
- MeSH terms
- Social Learning, Adolescent, Adolescent Behavior, Anxiety, Cooperative Behavior, Female, Humans, Male, Object Attachment, Psychotic Disorders, Age of Onset, Trust
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