The DOI matches its Crossref record; 81 of the 82 references it cites were found in a registry or an index, and 1 are not checked yet; none of the 24 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Emotion regulation: affective, cognitive, and social consequences.
Open accessAbstract
One of life's great challenges is successfully regulating emotions. Do some emotion regulation strategies have more to recommend them than others? According to Gross's (1998, Review of General Psychology, 2, 271-299) process model of emotion regulation, strategies that act early in the emotion-generative process should have a different profile of consequences than strategies that act later on. This review focuses on two commonly used strategies for down-regulating emotion. The first, reappraisal, comes early in the emotion-generative process. It consists of changing the way a situation is construed so as to decrease its emotional impact. The second, suppression, comes later in the emotion-generative process. It consists of inhibiting the outward signs of inner feelings. Experimental and individual-difference studies find reappraisal is often more effective than suppression. Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory. By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory. Suppression also increases physiological responding for suppressors and their social partners. This review concludes with a consideration of five important directions for future research on emotion regulation processes.
Checked 2026-10-05 · 1 reference not checked yet
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
27 Own result · 22 Own interpretation · 13 No full text of the sources · 9 Sources not found · 6 No basis given · 3 Not checked yet · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 5 · plain
“It is noteworthy that whereas suppressing negative emotionexpressive behavior has no discernible impact on negative emotion experience ~ e.g., disgust, sadness, embarrassment ! , suppressing positive emotion-expressive behavior does have an impact on positive emotion experience ~ e.g., amusement ! .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, reappraisal had no impact on verbal memory.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Relations between suppression and negative emotion expression also followed expectations, with suppression being associated with lesser negative emotion expressive behavior.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reappraisal decreases emotion experience and behavioral expression, and has no impact on memory.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
“Also unlike suppression, reappraisal decreased disgust experience, whereas suppression had no effect on disgust experience.”
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Individual-Difference Data · p. 5 · plain
“Reappraisal, by contrast, was associated with greater positive emotion experience and expression, and lesser negative emotion experience and expression.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Affective Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 4 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found that individuals who scored higher on either of the two suppression scales reported having worse memory that those who scored lower on these suppression scales”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By contrast, suppression decreases behavioral expression, but fails to decrease emotion experience, and actually impairs memory.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
“As predicted, results indicated that suppression led to reliable decrements ~ compared to the control condition ! in both objective memory and memory confidence ratings.”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“As predicted, suppression participants performed less well on the verbal memory test than control participants.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · hedged
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They also performed worse on an objective memory test in which they were asked to recall events they had listed in a daily diary 1 week earlier.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike suppression, however, reappraisal had no observable consequences in terms of sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular or electrodermal systems.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, suppression's effect on verbal memory was just as pronounced for the low-emotion as for the high-emotion slides, suggesting that it is the process of engaging in suppression that is cognitively costly, rather than the amount of emotion that is actually suppressed.”
plainn = 76- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 28
- Probably not a substantial claim. 6
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Table 1. Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression (Controlling for Neuroticism and Social Desirability)”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Self-reported | - .31 * | - .23 * | .09 |”
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
“| Objective | - .33 * | - .27 * | .05 |”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Cognitive Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 6 · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Findings regarding suppression and negative emotion experience were mixed, showing either no effects or positive effects, that is, the more individuals said they suppressed, the more negative emotion they said they felt.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Whereas suppress participants showed greater increases in sympathetic activation than watch or reappraise subjects, these latter two groups did not differ from one another.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In each case, suppression was associated with negative outcomes, whereas reappraisal was associated with positive outcomes.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Gross and Levenson ~ 1997 ! found a suppression effect for amusement experience both in a context that predominantly elicited amusement ~ an amusement film ! and in a context in which there were lower levels of amusement ~ a sadness film that evoked a bit of secondary amusement ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross and Levenson, 1997 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As expected, suppression decreased nonemotional behavior, and no differences were found between suppress and watch subjects for any of the physiological or experiential variables.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Importantly, however, emotions do not force us to respond in certain ways, they only make it more likely we will do so.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals with schizophrenia have decreased emotion-expressive behavior compared with controls, but comparable levels of emotion experience”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kring & Neale, 1996 source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reappraisal seems to decrease negative emotion experience and expression while either having no impact or actually increasing positive emotion experience and expression”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These latter changes cohere theoretically, and can be described in terms of 'increased sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.'”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Such monitoring requires a continual outlay of cognitive resources, reducing the resources available for processing events so that they can later be remembered.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The logic of this comparative design hinges on the premise that whereas antecedent-focused forms of emotion regulation ~ such as reappraisal ! principally concern whether or not emotion response tendencies are triggered , response-focused strategies ~ such as suppression ! concern how emotion response tendencies are modulated once they have been triggered .”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Suppression also was associated with poorer social support and lesser use of instrumental and emotional social support coping.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross and John ~ in press !
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“reappraisal led to increased activation of lateral prefrontal regions important for cognitive control, and to decreases in activation of the amygdala and medial orbitofrontal cortex”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Ochsner, Bunge, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2002
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Patients with schizophrenia also have well-characterized deficits in social functioning, and lead those interacting with them to feel uncomfortable”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Krause, Steimer, Sanger-Alt, & Wagner, 1989 source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression seems to be a blunt instrument-one that decreases both negative and positive emotion-expressive behavior, thereby masking important social signals that would otherwise be available to social interaction partners”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the ongoing requirement of monitoring one's own facial expressions and vocal signals could distract the suppressing individual and make them less responsive to the emotional cues of their partner”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not”
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
“Suppression also consumes cognitive resources, impairing memory for information presented during the emotion regulation period. Reappraisal, by contrast, appears to have no such cognitive consequences.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
- Also stated in: § Concluding Comment · p. 9 · hedged
In the paper
“Similarly, Harris ~ 2001 ! has found that suppressing visible signs of embarrassment leads to enhanced blood pressure responses, but does not affect emotion experience reports.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Harris, 2001 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Compared with the no soundtrack condition, participants who heard the soundtrack had lower skin conductance levels and more pleasant mood ratings.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lazarus & Alfert, 1964 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theorists since Darwin ~ 1872 0 1998 ! have maintained that emotionexpressive behavior plays an important role in facilitating social interactions.”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Campos, Mumme, Kermoian, & Campos, 1994 source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“over half of the nonsubstance related Axis I clinical disorders and all of the Axis II personality disorders involve some form of emotion dysregulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gross & Levenson, 1997 source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Individuals increase, maintain, and decrease negative and positive emotions ~ Parrott, 1993 ! .”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Parrott, 1993
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim could be matched to a paper in Crossref, so there is nothing to check it against.
In the paper
“Suppression also increases electrodermal responding and blood pressure, and decreases finger pulse amplitude, finger temperature, and pulse transit times.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Gross, 1998a
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not matchedcites Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This would make costly self-regulation unnecessary, leaving memory intact.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, these findings concerning suppression suggest decreases in positive emotion experience, but the physiological effects of suppression are not clear.”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suggesting that the cognitive costs of suppression are due to the verbal demands of self-instructions issued during the course of suppression ~ e.g., 'I need to keep my face still' ! .”
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
- Rests on an assumption: Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
In the paper
“Diverse forms of self-regulation result in similar kinds of 'ego depletion,' which suggests that a common resource may be consumed in diverse forms of regulation”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Baumeister, Bratslavsky, Muraven, & Tice, 1998 source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“suppression appears to have little impact on negative emotion experience, while decreasing positive emotion experience”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Suppression requires self-monitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.
“Suppression is a form of emotion regulation that requires selfmonitoring and self-corrective action throughout an emotional event.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Emotions involve coordinated behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies.
“In either case, emotions call forth a coordinated set of behavioral, experiential, and physiological response tendencies that together influence how we respond to perceived challenges and opportunities.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The personal meaning assigned to a situation strongly influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies are generated.
“The personal meaning that is assigned to the situation is crucial because it powerfully influences which experiential, behavioral, and physiological response tendencies will be generated in that particular situation.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The suppression and reappraisal constructs measured as habitual individual differences are the same constructs manipulated in the laboratory experiments.
“These individual-difference findings converge with the results of our experimental studies, and suggest that whereas suppression is cognitively costly, reappraisal is not.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The cited source doesn’t support the claim as written.
In the citing paper
“In the last two decades clinicians have shown that mindfulness training can improve emotional disorders [74] and negative mood [75] and reduce physiological responses such as skin conductance [76] and amygdala activity [67].”
From Mindful emotion regulation: Exploring the neurocognitive mechanisms behind mindfulness (2015) · cites this paper as [74]
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“some models of emotions distinguish between antecedent-focused and response-focused emotion regulation strategies, based on the differential processing of internal and external emotional cues [65–68].”
From The empirical status of the "new wave" of cognitive behavioral therapy (2010) · cites this paper as [66]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“In addition, the recognition performance of emotional stimuli seems to be unaffected by emotional reappraisal (see [9,28] but see [29]), whereas suppression leads to impaired recognition [8,9].”
From Effects of differential strategies of emotion regulation (2019) · cites this paper as [9]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We used similar instructions as Gross and colleagues to induce suppression (e.g., Gross & Levenson, 1997), and we replicated their earlier findings, suggesting that our experimental manipulation worked (Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross & Levenson, 1997).”
From How to handle anxiety: The effects of reappraisal, acceptance, and suppression strategies on anxious arousal (2009) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Laboratory based studies of cognitive change report psychological benefits from instructing participants to reappraise emotional stimuli or tasks in a manner designed to diminish personal identification and increase objectivity before the individuals encounter the stimuli or task”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“to achieve a common goal of behavioral adaptation, CBTs share change principles that target responding at different points along an emotional trajectory (Gross, 2002), including context engagement which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of behavioral exposure and behavioral activation; attention change, which can be seen as encompassing therapeutic processes of attention training”
From United we stand: emphasizing commonalities across cognitive-behavioral therapies. (2013) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Within this framework, the process model differentiates emotion regulation strategies according to the time they intervene in the unfolding emotional response: we can distinguish between antecedent-focused strategies, which are used before the emotion response tendencies become active, and response-focused strategies, which are used once the response tendencies are generated [56,60,61].”
From Interoceptive Ability and Emotion Regulation in Mind–Body Interventions: An Integrative Review (2024) · cites this paper as [60]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Cognitive reappraisal is an effective emotion regulation strategy (Gross, 2002), that has been demonstrated to facilitate emotion regulation in healthy and psychiatric cohorts.”
From Rt-fMRI neurofeedback-guided cognitive reappraisal training modulates amygdala responsivity in posttraumatic stress disorder (2020) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
In the citing paper
“Emotion regulation therapy (ERT) is one approach to combining CBTs and MBIs that addresses sequencing by targeting the refractory negative emotionality and resulting negative self-referentiality that characterizes distress disorders [75] by first addressing attention change techniques”
From All together now: utilizing common functional change principles to unify cognitive behavioral and mindfulness-based therapies (2019) · cites this paper as [81]
In the citing paper
“Taken together, this suggests that the generation of compassion in response to distressing situations is distinct from other emotion regulation strategies, such as suppression or reappraisal, which involve an active downregulation of negative affect (Gross, 2002).”
From Differential pattern of functional brain plasticity after compassion and empathy training (2014) · cites this paper as Gross, 2002
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Rated minor: it would not touch a result — a value no result rests on, a p-value that stays on the same side of the significance level, or a conflict that is clerical, resolved elsewhere in the paper, or outside its own findings.
In the paper
§ Social Consequences of Reappraisal and Suppression: Experimental Data · p. 7
“We asked unacquainted pairs of women to watch an upsetting film, and then discuss their reactions ~ Butler, Egloff, Wilhelm, Smith, & Gross, 2002 ! .”
§ REFERENCES · p. 10
“Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.”
Citations
Cites
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191 · Cited by 43,925
“Stress: appraisal and coping,”
Folkman, S. (2013) · Encyclopedia of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1005-9_215 · Cited by 27,833
The expression of the emotions in man and animals.
Darwin, C. D. (1872) · J. Murray eBooks · doi:10.1037/10001-000 · Cited by 12,120
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1978) · Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4 · Cited by 10,586
The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review
Gross, J. J. (1998) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271 · Cited by 9,916
Self-citationPsychological stress and the coping process
Lazarus, R. S. (1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 7,164
Murray, C. J. L., & López, A. D. (1997) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(96)07492-2 · Cited by 7,007
Ego depletion: Is the active self a limited resource?
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Muraven, M., & Tice, D. M. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.5.1252 · Cited by 5,312
Gross, J. J. (1998) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.224 · Cited by 4,671
Self-citationProgress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion
Lazarus, R. S. (1991) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.46.8.819 · Cited by 3,272
Research works printed but not linked: 11
- Buck, R. W. ~ 1979 ! . Individual differences in non-verbal sending accuracy and electrodermal responding: The externalizing-internalizing dimension. In R. Rosenthal ~ Ed. ! , Skill in non-verbal communication ~ pp. 140170 ! . Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn & Hain.
- Butler, E. A., Egloff, B., Wilhelm, F. H., Smith, N. C., & Gross, J. J. ~ 2001 ! . The social consequences of emotion regulation . Manuscript under review.
- Clore, G. L. ~ 1994 ! . Why emotions vary in intensity. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson ~ Eds. ! , The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions ~ pp. 386-393 ! . New York: Oxford University Press.
- Frijda, N. H. ~ 1986 ! . The emotions . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
- Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. ~ in press ! . Wise emotion regulation. In L.
- Head, H. ~ 1921 ! . Release function in the nervous system. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London: Biology , 92B , 184-209.
- Jones, H. E. ~ 1950 ! . The study of patterns of emotion expression. In M. Reymert ~ Ed. ! , Feelings and emotions ~ pp. 161-168 ! . New York: McGraw-Hill.
- Leary, M. R. ~ 1986 ! . Affective and behavioral consequences of shyness: Implications for theory, measurement, and research. In W. H. Jones & J. M. Cheek & S. R. Briggs ~ Eds. ! , Shyness: Perspectives on research and treatment ~ pp. 27-38 ! . New York: Plenum Press.
- Levenson, R. W. ~ 1994 ! . Human emotions: A functional view. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson ~ Eds. ! , The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions ~ pp. 123-126 ! . New York: Oxford University Press.
- Mauss, I. B., & Gross, J. J. ~ in press ! . Emotion suppression and cardiovascular disease: Is hiding feelings bad for your heart? In L. R. Temoshok, I. Nyklicek, & A. Vingerhoets ~ Eds. ! , Emotions in health promotion and disease . London: Harwood Academic Press.
- Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., Gabrieli, J. D. E. ~ 2002 ! . The neural bases of reappraisal . Manuscript under review.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 1,201–1,300 of 4,870
Yao, L., Chen, X.-P., & Wei, H. (2022) · Asia Pacific Journal of Management · doi:10.1007/s10490-022-09824-x · Cited by 33
“Similarly, Gross (2002) showed that emotion suppression consumes cognitive resources and is asso‑ ciated with sympathetic activation of the cardiovascular system.”
InfluentialTreating Affair Couples: Extending the Written Disclosure Paradigm to Relationship Trauma
Snyder, D. K., Gordon, K. C., & Baucom, D. H. (2004) · Clinical Psychology Science and Practice · doi:10.1093/clipsy.bph066 · Cited by 36
Grecucci, A., Giorgetta, C., Bonini, N., & Sanfey, A. G. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00616 · Cited by 34
“Our ability to regulate emotions when interacting with others is considered to be a crucial dimension of both emotional intelligence (Mayer and Salovey, 1997; Lopes et al., 2011), and of good mental health (Gross, 2002; van’tWout et al., 2010).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialHua, M., Han, Z. R., & Zhou, R. (2015) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/87565641.2015.1069827 · Cited by 34
“…has been proven to be an effective way to decrease the self-report experience, behavioral expression, and physiological arousal of negative emotions without significant physiological or cognitive costs (Richards & Gross, 2000; Gross, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2002; Hajcak & Nieuwenhuis, 2006).”
BackgroundBassal, C., Czellar, J., Kaiser, S., & Dan‐Glauser, E. (2015) · Research on Aging · doi:10.1177/0164027515591629 · Cited by 42
“…hypothesized to be moderator variables between emotions and exhaustion level, given their consistent association with experienced emotions on the one hand (Butler et al., 2003; Goldin, McRae, Ramel, & Gross, 2008; Gross, 1998) and with well-being on the other hand (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
BackgroundAn Empirical, Phenomenological Study
Robbins, B. D. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012088470-4/50010-7 · Cited by 34
Regulation of Romantic Love Feelings: Preconceptions, Strategies, and Feasibility
Langeslag, S. J. E., & Strien, J. W. V. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0161087 · Cited by 39
“Thus, undertaking novel and exciting activities with the beloved, which is a situation selection strategy [21], may be an effective behavioral strategy for up-regulating love feelings.”
BackgroundInfluentialPromoting Well-Being by Teaching Employees How to Segment Their Life Domains
Rexroth, M., Michel, A., & Bosch, C. (2017) · Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und Organisationspsychologie A&O · doi:10.1026/0932-4089/a000253 · Cited by 36
Biopsychosocial Mechanisms Linking Discrimination to Health: A Focus on Social Cognition
Brondolo, E. N., Blair, I. V., & Kaur, A. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190243470.013.8 · Cited by 42
“Shifting mental perspective can facilitate the re-appraisal of the meaning and salience of an experience, and contribute to the capacity to regulate emotions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Teachers’ Emotion Regulation Strategies and Related Teacher and Classroom Factors
Doyle, N. B., Downer, J. T., & Rimm‐Kaufman, S. E. (2024) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09624-8 · Cited by 33
“…some support for this narrative, as a body of research indicates that using cognitive reappraisal effectively decreases the intensity of negative emotions (Ray et al., 2010) and is associated with positive outcomes, including healthier social-emotional functioning (Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003).”
Silvestrini, N., & Gendolla, G. H. E. (2011) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.02.017 · Cited by 33
McDonald, S., Hunt, C. J., Henry, J. D., Dimoska, A., & Bornhofen, C. (2010) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803391003596405 · Cited by 33
“Suppression requires significant cognitive effort, interfering with other cognitive activity (Gross, 2001, 2002) so may well reflect control.”
BackgroundStop laughing! Humor perception with and without expressive suppression
Korb, S., Grandjean, D., Samson, A. C., Delplanque, S., & Scherer, K. R. (2012) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2012.667573 · Cited by 33
“These results are in line with Gross' model, which posits reappraisal as an antecedent-focused, and ES as a response-focused emotion-regulation strategy (Gross, 2002 ).”
ResultGorka, S. M., Phan, K. L., Lyons, M., Mori, S., Angstadt, M., & Rabinak, C. A. (2015) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2015.359 · Cited by 35
Regulação emocional, bem-estar psicológico e bem-estar subjetivo
Santana, V. S., & Gondim, S. M. G. (2016) · Estudos de Psicologia (Natal) · doi:10.5935/1678-4669.20160007 · Cited by 47
“Para Gross (2013), Koole (2009) e Tamir (2011), houve um crescimento expressivo da pesquisa sobre regulação na última década, passando a ser vista como um processo crucial na adaptação (Butler, Lee, & Gross, 2007; Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundChallenge vs. Threat: the Effect of Appraisal Type on Resource Depletion
Palmwood, E. N., & McBride, C. A. (2017) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-017-9713-6 · Cited by 34
You ≠ me: individual differences in the structure of social cognition
Shaw, D. J., Czekóová, K., Pennington, C. R., Qureshi, A., Špiláková, B., Salazar, M., Brázdil, M., & Urbánek, T. (2018) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-018-1107-3 · Cited by 43
“Although such automatic behavioural reactions can serve important adaptive functions (i.e., fightor-flight responses), emotion-driven behaviours are often illsuited to social contexts and must be down-regulated (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundStop crying! The impact of situational demands on interpersonal emotion regulation
Pauw, L. S., Sauter, D. A., Kleef, G. A. V., & Fischer, A. H. (2019) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2019.1585330 · Cited by 37
“While ineffective in the long term, suppression and distraction may facilitate short-term down-regulation of the emotional expression (suppression) and experience (distraction; Gross, 2002; Kross & Ayduk, 2008; Sheppes & Meiran, 2008; Webb et al., 2012).”
Sætren, S. S., Sütterlin, S., Lugo, R. G., Prince‐Embury, S., & Makransky, G. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00438 · Cited by 35
“The process of regulating the generative process of emotional arousal reflects individual’s modulation of which, when, and how they experience and express their emotions (Gross, 1998, 2002).”
BackgroundKarni‐Visel, Y., Hershkowitz, I., Lamb, M. E., & Blasbalg, U. (2019) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559519831382 · Cited by 32
Schwerdtfeger, A. R., Heene, S., & Meßner, E.-M. (2019) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2019.04.003 · Cited by 38
Raschle, N. M., Fehlbaum, L. V., Menks, W. M., Martinelli, A., Prätzlich, M., Bernhard, A., Ackermann, K., Freitag, C. M., Brito, S. A. D., Fairchild, G. F., et al. (2019) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.05.003 · Cited by 32
“Emotion regulation skills provide a means of controlling the intensity, duration, or extent of the experience evoked by an emotional stimulus or situation (3,4).”
Ganuthula, V. R. R., & Sinha, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02857 · Cited by 40
“Lastly, studies could also examine how trait emotion regulation strategies influence performance on IQ tests as they modulate the generation and expression of emotions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundBomyea, J. A., Ball, T. M., Simmons, A. N., Campbell‐Sills, L., Paulus, M. P., & Stein, M. B. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.04.001 · Cited by 34
“Reappraisal refers to an emotion regulation strategy wherein an individual generates an alternative appraisal of a situation in order to change its emotional effect (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundNon-contact imaging of peripheral hemodynamics during cognitive and psychological stressors
McDuff, D., Nishidate, I., Nakano, K., Haneishi, H., Aoki, Y., Tanabe, C., Niizeki, K., & Aizu, Y. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-67647-6 · Cited by 34
van der Kaap‐Deeder, J., BRENNING, K. M., & Neyrinck, B. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110365 · Cited by 34
“ER refers to the processes individuals use to influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how these emotions are experienced and expressed (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation Diversity in Current and Remitted Depression
Wen, A., Quigley, L., Yoon, K. L., & Dobson, K. S. (2021) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702620978616 · Cited by 35
“The current study focused on intrapersonal ER strategies used to regulate negative emotions (e.g., Garnefski et al., 2001; Gross, 2002).”
Rosenzweig, L. R., Bagó, B., Berinsky, A. J., & Rand, D. G. (2021) · Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review · doi:10.37016/mr-2020-75 · Cited by 30
“Light touch interventions that get users to identify their current emotional states might also help regulate particular emotions (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotional intelligence and emotion regulation strategies
Śmieja, M., & Kobylińska, D. (2011) · Jagiellonian University Repository (Jagiellonian University) · doi:10.2478/v10167-010-0040-x · Cited by 37
“In his process model of emotion (Gross, 1997; Gross, 2002; Gross & John, 2003; Gross, 2008; John & Gross, 2004), emotion regulation is described as occurring on fi ve different levels related to the dynamics of emotional process.”
InfluentialDimić, S., Wildgrube, C., McCabe, R., et al. (2010) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000313519 · Cited by 33
Westermann, S., Rief, W., & Lincoln, T. M. (2012) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12000 · Cited by 35
Women’s spending behaviour is menstrual-cycle sensitive
Pine, K. J., & Fletcher, B. C. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.08.026 · Cited by 34
Lumley, M. A., Leisen, J. C. C., Partridge, T., Meyer, T. M., Radcliffe, A. M., Macklem, D. J., Naoum, L. A., Cohen, J. L., Lasichak, L. M., Lubetsky, M. R., et al. (2011) · Pain · doi:10.1016/j.pain.2011.01.003 · Cited by 34
“Stressful experiences influence pain and adjustment [7,24,33], and awareness and expression of emotions, rather than avoidance or inhibition, is thought to be adaptive [10,14].”
Müller, C. P., Schumann, G., Rehm, J. T., Kornhuber, J., & Lenz, B. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02074-3 · Cited by 34
“Self-management tasks, an extension and broadening of the self-regulation already developed in childhood [32, 33], appear and disappear during these periods.”
BackgroundNegative urgency and emotion regulation predict positive smoking expectancies in non-smoking youth
Dir, A. L., Banks, D. E., Zapolski, T. C. B., McIntyre, E., & Hulvershorn, L. A. (2016) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2016.02.014 · Cited by 32
“Further, emotionality and emotion regulation are associated with social functioning and social consequences (Eisenberg, Fabes, Guthrie, & Reiser, 2000; Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotions and personality traits in argumentation: An empirical evaluation
Villata, S., Cabrio, E., Jraidi, I., Benlamine, M. S., Chaouachi, M., Frasson, C., & Gandon, F. L. (2017) · Argument Comput. · doi:10.3233/aac-170015 · Cited by 28
“Emotion recognition methods can be categorized into three groups, each of them defining one level of how a usual emotional response is displayed, namely, experiential, behavioral and physiological [22].”
BackgroundSullivan, S. K., & Strauss, G. P. (2017) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000285 · Cited by 31
“Gross proposes that the emotional response unfolds over a sequence of stages, and that strategies can be applied to control the emotion response at any one of these stages (Gross, 1998, 2002).”
BackgroundSleep Quality and Emotion Regulation Interact to Predict Anxiety in Veterans with PTSD
Mantua, J., Helms, S. M., Weymann, K. B., Capaldi, V. F., & Lim, M. M. (2018) · Behavioural Neurology · doi:10.1155/2018/7940832 · Cited by 31
“, anxiety), while “cognitive reappraisal” (reframing emotional situations to make them less emotional) is predictive of healthy emotional functioning [8].”
BackgroundTamm, S., Nilsonne, G., Schwarz, J., Golkar, A., Kecklund, G., Petrović, P., Fischer, H., Åkerstedt, T., & Lekander, M. (2019) · Royal Society Open Science · doi:10.1098/rsos.181704 · Cited by 32
Emotion regulation and mood brightening in daily life vary with depressive symptom levels
Panaite, V., Koval, P., Dejonckheere, E., & Kuppens, P. (2018) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2018.1543180 · Cited by 31
“This may include dampening or enhancing the intensity or duration of emotions, or modifying how emotions are overtly expressed (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundA Qualitative Examination of Science Teachers’ Emotions, Emotion Regulation Goals and Strategies
Uzuntiryaki-Kondakçı, E., Kırbulut, Z. D., Oktay, Ö., & Sarici, E. (2021) · Research in Science Education · doi:10.1007/s11165-020-09986-y · Cited by 33
Compare, A., Proietti, R., Forno, D. D., Vitelli, A., Grieco, A., Maresca, L., & Giallauria, F. (2015) · Monaldi Archives for Chest Disease · doi:10.4081/monaldi.2011.197 · Cited by 31
Stability and change of perceived characteristics of major life events.
Haehner, P., Kritzler, S., Faßbender, I., & Luhmann, M. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspp0000394 · Cited by 37
You, M., Laborde, S., Zammit, N., Iskra, M., Borges, U., Dosseville, F. E. M., & Vaughan, R. S. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18126630 · Cited by 38
Zhang, M., Ding, Y., Zhang, J., Jiang, X., Xu, N., Zhang, L., & Yu, W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.851526 · Cited by 40
“Emotional regulation refers to the processes of modifying emotions, including how and when emotions are experienced and expressed (Gross, 2002; Nolen-Hoeksema, 2012).”
BackgroundCognitive-Emotion Interactions
Armony, J. L., & Vuilleumier, P. O. (2013) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511843716.018 · Cited by 33
Bruehl, H., Preißler, S., Heuser, I., Heekeren, H. R., Roepke, S., & Dziobek, I. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065584 · Cited by 31
The neural basis of mood dysregulation in bipolar disorder
Phillips, M. L. (2006) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800444000290 · Cited by 34
“Component processes employed in emotion regulation may include a reappraisal of the emotionally salient information such that its impact, and resulting experience and expression of emotion are altered, and suppression of the expression of the emotional experience (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundAttentional Control Moderates Fearful Responding to a 35% CO2 Challenge
Richey, J. A., Keough, M. E., & Schmidt, N. B. (2011) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2011.06.004 · Cited by 37
“Whereas emotion regulation processes broadly pertain to the reduction, intensification, or maintenance of an internal sensation (Gross, 1998, 2002; Ochsner et al., 2004), AC, on the other hand, reflects the ability to voluntarily orient attention in space (i.e., engage, disengage, or switch…”
BackgroundAnger Suppression, Ironic Processes and Pain
Quartana, P., Yoon, K. L., & Burns, J. (2007) · Journal of behavioral medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-007-9127-2 · Cited by 37
“As in the broader literature on the regulation of emotion (e.g., Gross 2002 ), much attention in pain research has focused on the suppression or inhibition of anger (Greenwood et al. 2003).”
BackgroundEmotion regulation during the encoding of emotional stimuli: Effects on subsequent memory
Leventon, J. S., & Bauer, P. J. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2015.09.024 · Cited by 32
Learner Control and e-Learning: Taking Stock and Moving Forward
Brown, K. G., Howardson, G. N., & Fisher, S. L. (2016) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-041015-062344 · Cited by 35
Masuda, A., Tully, E. C., Drake, C. E., Tarantino, N., Ames, A. M., & Larson, D. G. (2015) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-015-9399-6 · Cited by 33
Emotion regulation mediates the relationship between personality and sleep quality
Vantieghem, I., Marcoen, N., Mairesse, O., & Vandekerckhove, M. (2016) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2016.1171866 · Cited by 24
“Most evidence has been shown in support of the bene fi cial usage of cognitive reappraisal, and denotes the application of suppression in regard to stressful, negative situations (Aldao, Nolen-Hoeksema, & Schweizer, 2010; Eippert et al., 2007; Gross, 2002; John & Gross, 2004).”
BackgroundSelf‐control, peer preference, and loneliness in Chinese children: A three‐year longitudinal study
Liu, J., Xiao, B., Hipson, W. E., Coplan, R. J., Li, D., & Chen, X. (2016) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12224 · Cited by 34
The Social Effects of Emotion Regulation in Organizations
Kleef, G. A. V. (2013) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203100851-16 · Cited by 32
Kalibatseva, Z., & Leong, F. T. L. (2018) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022118803181 · Cited by 32
“Another psychological construct that may be associated with mental health is emotional regulation (ER) defined as “the processes by which we influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them” (Gross, 2002, p. 282).”
BackgroundShapiro, D. L. (2002) · Conflict Resolution Quarterly · doi:10.1002/crq.11 · Cited by 43
Schweizer, T., Schmitz, J., Plempe, L., Sun, D., Becker-Asano, C., Leonhart, R., & Tuschen-Caffier, B. (2017) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0190360 · Cited by 30
Wong, T. K. Y., Colasante, T., & Malti, T. (2023) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2023.101253 · Cited by 31
Representation of Cognitive Reappraisal Goals in Frontal Gamma Oscillations
Kang, J.-H., Jeong, J. W., Kim, H. T., Kim, S. H., & Kim, S.-P. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0113375 · Cited by 30
“[6,7].”
Emotion suppression reduces hippocampal activity during successful memory encoding
Binder, J. C., de Quervain, D. J. ‐., Friese, M., Luechinger, R., Boesiger, P., & Rasch, B. (2012) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2012.07.007 · Cited by 34
“…by video analysis (Gross and Levenson, 1993, 1997), studies using physiological or neural correlates of emotional reactions revealed mixed results with regard to the success of down-regulating the inner emotional experience (Demaree et al., 2006b; Gross, 1998, 2002; Gross and Levenson, 1993, 1997).”
BackgroundResultEffects of Anger Rumination on Different Scenarios of Anger: An Experimental Investigation
Offredi, A., Caselli, G., Manfredi, C., Ruggiero, G. M., Sassaroli, S., Liuzzo, P., & Rovetto, F. M. (2016) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.5406/amerjpsyc.129.4.0381 · Cited by 36
Alkoby, A., Halperin, E., Tarrasch, R., & Levit‐Binnun, N. (2017) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0710-5 · Cited by 34
“For example, individuals trained to regulate emotions via cognitive reappraisal (one of the most commonly studied emotion regulation strategies, see Gross 2002) were able to effectively regulate their negative intergroup emotions even in response to the most violent intergroup developments.”
BackgroundKaniuka, A. R., Rabon, J. K., Chang, E. C., Sirois, F. M., & Hirsch, J. K. (2019) · Journal of College Student Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/87568225.2019.1601048 · Cited by 36
“…of etiological theories of NSSI, it may also be that individuals with anxiety and depression who engage in NSSI are avoiding and distracting from their negative emotions, thereby engaging in non-acceptance, which is contrary to the processes of mindfulness (Gratz & Roemer, 2004; Gross, 2002).”
ResultZhang, T., Wang, Z., Liu, G., & Shao, J. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.10.005 · Cited by 37
Sung, E., Chang, J. H., Lee, S., & Park, S. H. (2019) · Military Psychology · doi:10.1080/08995605.2018.1556083 · Cited by 31
“Metaanalysis studies on work stress management suggest that cognitive behavioral intervention strategies demonstrate the strongest effect size (Bhui et al., 2012; Butler, Chapman, Forman, & Beck, 2006; Gross, 2002; Van der Klink et al., 2001).”
BackgroundEstablishment and replication of emotion regulation profiles: implications for psychological health
Chesney, S. A., Timmer‐Murillo, S. C., & Gordon, N. S. (2019) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2019.1573990 · Cited by 38
“…2018 KEYWORDS Emotion regulation; profiles; repertoire; psychopathology; latent profile analysis; person-centered It is long understood that the myriad ways individuals regulate their emotional experiences are related to varying degrees of psychological wellness (Gross, 2002; Lazarus, 1991).”
BackgroundValim, C. P. R. A. T., Marques, L. M., & Boggio, P. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00647 · Cited by 36
“Considering this emotion-modulating characteristic, some studies investigate strategies of emotion regulation, in other words, ways of modulating emotional response components (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundLopez, R. B., & Denny, B. T. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109529 · Cited by 35
Willem, C., Gandolphe, M., Doba, K., Roussel, M., Verkindt, H., Pattou, F. N., & Nandrino, J. (2020) · Clinical Obesity · doi:10.1111/cob.12388 · Cited by 37
“sion, has also been associated with negative emotions that are more frequent.(20) Thus, emotion dys-regulation would increase the risk of EE by increasing the frequency of negative emotions, thereby trigger-”
BackgroundZhang, X., Luo, Q., Wang, S., Qiu, L., Pan, N., Kuang, W., Lui, S., Huang, X., Yang, X., Kemp, G. J., et al. (2020) · EBioMedicine · doi:10.1016/j.ebiom.2020.102910 · Cited by 31
“In this sense, ‘appraisal’ refers to the evaluation of the meaning of the stimuli to the organism; ‘reappraisal’, which is an important strategy for emotion regulation, involves changing the way one thinks about a situation to decrease its emotional impact and is associated with positive affect and interpersonal relat…”
BackgroundWeerdmeester, J., van Rooij, M. M. J. W., Maciejewski, D. F., Engels, R. C. M. E., & Granic, I. (2021) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000028 · Cited by 36
Lee, M., & Jang, K.-S. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9091238 · Cited by 36
“Emotion regulation is defined as the process influencing how and when individuals experience and express certain emotions, indicating one’s ability to manage emotional experiences and expressions [31].”
BackgroundInfluentialYe, B., Wu, D., Wang, P., Im, H., Liu, M., Wang, X., & Yang, Q. (2021) · International Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s12529-021-10026-w · Cited by 31
Eder, A. B., Rothermund, K., & Proctor, R. W. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0019009 · Cited by 31
“…set in before the emotion response is generated (e.g., selective exposure to, behavioral modification of, and reappraisal of an emotion eliciting situation), whereas response-focused emotion regulation aims at a modulation of emotional responses after an emotion has been elicited (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundPsychometric challenges and proposed solutions when scoring facial emotion expression codes
Olderbak, S. G., Hildebrandt, A., Pinkpank, T., Sommer, W., & Wilhelm, O. (2013) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-013-0421-3 · Cited by 31
“One can also show a typical facial emotion expression without feeling that emotion, which is referred to as “faking an emotion” (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundKohlhoff, J. R., Hawes, D. J., Mence, M., Russell, A. M. T., Wedgwood, L., & Morgan, S. S. J. (2016) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2016.1184942 · Cited by 31
“Expressive suppression, by contrast, represents the inhibition of ongoing emotion-expressive behavior (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotion regulation to idiographic stimuli: Testing the Autobiographical Emotion Regulation Task
Speed, B. C., Levinson, A. R., Gross, J. J., Kiosses, D. N., & Hajcak, G. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.032 · Cited by 34
“One specific form of cognitive change, cognitive reappraisal, has garnered increasing attention because of its associations with a range of positive health outcomes (Gross, 2002).”
Self-citationThe RODS Open Source Project: Removing a Barrier to Syndromic Surveillance
Espino, J. U., D, M. M. W. M., Fu-Chang, T., Su, H.-D., Olszewski Robert, T., Liu, Z., Chapman, W. W., Xiaoming, Z., Ma, L., Wei, L. Z., et al. (2004) · Studies in health technology and informatics · doi:10.3233/978-1-60750-949-3-1192 · Cited by 30
Monteleone, A. M., Ruzzi, V., Pellegrino, F., Patriciello, G., Cascino, G., Giorno, C. D., Monteleone, P., & Maj, M. (2018) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.12.232 · Cited by 34
Treatment of hypochondriasis with exposure
Furer, P., & Walker, J. R. (2005) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-005-4319-y · Cited by 30
“Gross (2002) reviews a series of studies that indicate that cognitive reappraisal of a situation as less negative or less emotional before entering the emotional situation or early in the sequence of events, reduces the emotional impact of the situation without compromising performance.”
BackgroundMonachesi, B., Grecucci, A., Ghomroudi, P. A., & Messina, I. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1187092 · Cited by 38
“Frontiers in Psychology 01 frontiersin.org Reappraisal is defined as “construing a potentially emotioneliciting situation in non-emotional terms” (Gross, 2002, p. 281).”
BackgroundSadoughi, M., Hejazi, S. Y., & Khajavy, G. H. (2024) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/13621688241238350 · Cited by 37
“In fact, emotions are regulated in processes through which ‘we influence which emotions we have, when we have them, and how we experience and express them’ (Gross, 2002, p. 282).”
General emotion processing in social anxiety disorder: Neural issues of cognitive control
Brühl, A. B., Herwig, U., Delsignore, A., Jäncke, L., & Rufer, M. (2012) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2012.05.006 · Cited by 31
“One important CBT strategy is to check the reality and to (re)appraise a situation in a realistic, non-threatening way, which is a method to cognitively control emotions (Gross, 2002; Gross and Thompson, 2007).”
MethodSilaen, A. C., & Dewi, K. S. (2015) · Jurnal EMPATI · doi:10.14710/empati.2015.14912 · Cited by 30
Davis, E., Foland‐Ross, L. C., & Gotlib, I. H. (2018) · Psychiatry Research Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.pscychresns.2018.04.001 · Cited by 30
Does Meditation Alter Brain Responses to Negative Stimuli? A Systematic Review
Magalhães, A. A., Oliveira, L., Pereira, M. G., & Menezes, C. B. (2018) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00448 · Cited by 30
Blanchard, B. E., Stevens, A. K., Cann, A. T., & Littlefield, A. K. (2018) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.12.020 · Cited by 31
McDuff, D., Jun, E., Rowan, K., & Czerwinski, M. P. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/taffc.2019.2961912 · Cited by 31
“that they were not expressing socially what they actually felt [31].”
BackgroundMorawetz, C., Steyrl, D., Berboth, S., Heekeren, H. R., & Bode, S. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa147 · Cited by 29
“…emotion regulation strategy—cognitive reappraisal [i.e., the process by which one changes the meaning of a stimulus by altering its emotional impact (Gross 2002)]— has been demonstrated to effectively modulate not only craving for foods (Giuliani et al. 2013; Reader et al. 2018) but also the…”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Trait Mindfulness and Emotional Reactivity Following Mood Manipulation
Himes, L. M., Hubbard, N. A., Maruthy, G. B., Gallagher, J., Turner, M. P., & Bart Rypma, A. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01510-7 · Cited by 38
“…in a more positive context or by Baseline mood assessment (EVEA 1), after negative induction mood assessment (EVEA 2), and after positive induction mood assessment (EVEA 3) suppressing the emotional response (Gross 2002), mindful emotion regulation is thought to arise by a different mechanism.”
BackgroundSolak, N., Tamir, M., Sümer, N., Jost, J. T., & Halperin, E. (2021) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-021-09883-5 · Cited by 37
“Suppressing emotions either chronically or upon instruction is related to various negative outcomes for the individual and the quality of the relationship (Chernovsky & Hunt, 2017; Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotion Regulation in Psychodynamic and Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: An Integrative Perspective.
Palmieri, A., Fernandez, K. C., Cariolato, Y., Kleinbub, J. R., Salvatore, S., & Gross, J. J. (2022) · PubMed Central · doi:10.36131/cnfioritieditore20220204 · Cited by 43
“Although PDT and CBT are each heterogeneous families of therapeutic approaches, the presence of shared epistemological and/or quality of emotions (Gross, 1998b) either prior to or following an emotional response (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHerbert, C., Deutsch, R., Sütterlin, S., Kübler, A., & Pauli, P. (2011) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-011-0026-1 · Cited by 30
“Instructing individuals to suppress their emotional reactions by telling them not to show any emotional reactions often results in an increase in physiological responding (Goldin, McRae, Ramel, & Gross, 2008; Gross, 2002; Wegner, Shortt, Blake, & Page, 1990), reduced positive affect (Gross & Levenson, 1993, 1997; Nezl…”
BackgroundThe effect of friendly touch on delay-of-gratification in preschool children
Leonard, J., Berkowitz, T., & Shusterman, A. (2014) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470218.2014.907325 · Cited by 32
“Importantly, the “cognitive” interventions used in previous experiments probably have affective components, because children’s cognitive appraisals can increase or decrease emotional states like frustration or social trust with the experimenter (Gross, 2002).”
BackgroundEmotion regulation as a determinant of recovery experiences and well-being: A day-level study.
Schraub, E. M., Turgut, S., Clavairoly, V. C. S., & Sonntag, K. (2013) · International Journal of Stress Management · doi:10.1037/a0034483 · Cited by 32
Factorial structure of the perceived stress scale and implications for scoring
Michaelides, M. P., Christodoulou, A., Kkeli, N., Karekla, M., & Panayiotou, G. (2016) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2016.07.002 · Cited by 33
A genome-wide association study of emotion dysregulation: Evidence for interleukin 2 receptor alpha
Powers, A. D., Almli, L. M., Smith, A. K., Lori, A., Leveille, J. M., Ressler, K. J., Jovanović, T., & Bradley, B. (2016) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.09.006 · Cited by 32
“One promising phenotype to consider in understanding psychopathology is emotion dysregulation (Bradley et al., 2011a, Cicchetti et al., 1995, Gross, 2002, Gross and Munoz, 1995, John and Gross, 2004).”
BackgroundMachiavellian emotion regulation in a cognitive reappraisal task: An fMRI study
Deák, A., Bodrogi, B., Biró, B., Perlaki, G., Orsi, G., & Bereczkei, T. (2017) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-016-0495-3 · Cited by 34
“Cognitive reappraisal occurs at a relatively early stage via cognitive-control processes; it is an effective method of regulating emotional state and behavior and contributes to psychological and physical wellbeing (Gross, 1998, 2002).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Gross, J. J.
- Affiliations
- Stanford University (US)
- Corresponding author
- Gross, James J.
- ORCID
- Gross, James J.
- Venue
- Psychophysiology
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-05
- Volume
- 39
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 281-291
- ISSN
- 0048-5772 (ISSN-L)
- 1469-8986
- OpenAlex
- W2128126978
- Cited by
- 4,890
- References
- 73
- Citations by year
- 2026: 341 · 2025: 492 · 2024: 315 · 2023: 314 · 2022: 321 · 2021: 315 · 2020: 273 · 2019: 267 · 2018: 276 · 2017: 254 · 2016: 226 · 2015: 232 · 2014: 233 · 2013: 228 · 2012: 179
- FWCI
- 5.54
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychophysiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 58147)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- emotion regulation, cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, process model of emotion regulation, emotional experience, emotional expression, memory impairment, individual differences
- MeSH terms
- Affect, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Psychophysiology, Social Behavior
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-01, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-01 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
