Cited by 176Attention Deficit Hyperactivity DisorderChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentMental Health Research Topics

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Sources of covariation among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct Disorder:The importance of shared environment

Burt, S. Alexandra, Krueger, Robert F., McGue, Matt, Iacono, William G.·2001·Journal of Abnormal Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0021-843x.110.4.516

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Abstract

Research has documented high levels of covariation among childhood externalizing disorders, but the etiology of this covariation is unclear. To unravel the sources of covariation among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD), the authors studied 11-year-old twins (N = 1,506) from the Minnesota Twin Family Study. Symptom counts for each of these disorders were obtained from interviews administered to the twins and their mothers. A model was fit that allowed the parsing of genetic, shared environmental (factors that make family members similar to each other), and nonshared environmental (factors that make family members different from each other) contributions to covariation. The results revealed that although each disorder was influenced by genetic and environmental factors, a single shared environmental factor made the largest contribution to the covariation among ADHD, ODD, and CD.

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Beauchaine, T. P., & Hinshaw, S. P. (2020) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2020.1750022 · Cited by 74
“Covariation among these first-order factors is accounted for largely by environmental influences (Burt et al., 2001).”
BackgroundResult
Locating eating pathology within an empirical diagnostic taxonomy: Evidence from a community-based sample.
Forbush, K. T., South, S. C., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., Clark, L. A., Keel, P. K., Legrand, L. N., & Watson, D. (2010) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0019189 · Cited by 65
Self-citation
Psychiatric comorbidity distribution and diversities in children and adolescents with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a study from Turkey
Yuce, M., Zoroğlu, S. S., Ceylan, M. F., Kandemır, H., & Karabekiroğlu, K. (2013) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s54283 · Cited by 56
“54 The presence of conduct disorder in ADHD is the most important indicator for the severity of the clinical picture and the rate of hospitalization is greater in this group.”
Harsh Discipline, Childhood Sexual Assault, and MAOA Genotype: An Investigation of Main and Interactive Effects on Diverse Clinical Externalizing Outcomes
Derringer, J. L., Krueger, R. F., Irons, D. E., & Iacono, W. G. (2010) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-010-9358-9 · Cited by 53
“The consensus process and the rationale for combining both child and mother reports of externalizing behavior in the MTFS are discussed in Burt et al. (2001) .”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Task orientation, parental warmth and SES account for a significant proportion of the shared environmental variance in general cognitive ability in early childhood: evidence from a twin study
Petrill, S. A., & Deater-Deckard, K. D. (2004) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00319.x · Cited by 53
Genetic and environmental influences on externalizing behavior and alcohol problems in adolescence: A female twin study
Knopik, V. S., Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A. F., & Waldron, M. (2009) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2009.03.011 · Cited by 57
“Further, while some evidence for common genes exists, other studies have suggested that environmental influences, rather than genetic, underlie the co-occurrence of disruptive behaviors, particularly ADHD, CD, and oppositional-defiant disorder (Burt et al., 2001, 2005).”
Incorporating the Family as a Critical Context in Genetic Studies of Children: Implications for Understanding Pathways to Risky Behavior and Substance Use
Rende, R., & Slomkowski, C. L. (2008) · Journal of Pediatric Psychology · doi:10.1093/jpepsy/jsn053 · Cited by 52
Gene × Environment effects of serotonin transporter, dopamine receptor D4, and monoamine oxidase A genes with contextual and parenting risk factors on symptoms of oppositional defiant disorder, anxiety, and depression in a community sample of 4-year-old children
Lavigne, J. V., Herzing, L. B. K., Cook, E. H., LeBailly, S. A., Gouze, K. R., Hopkins, J., & Bryant, F. B. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412001241 · Cited by 59
The structure of childhood disruptive behaviors.
Martel, M. M., Gremillion, M. L., Roberts, B., von Eye, A., & Nigg, J. T. (2010) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0020975 · Cited by 45
Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-/Hyperaktivitätsstörung (ADHS): Wie valide sind die Subtypen?
Desman, C., & Petermann, F. (2005) · Kindheit und Entwicklung · doi:10.1026/0942-5403.14.4.244 · Cited by 46
The Genetic and Environmental Contributions to Oppositional Defiant Behavior: A Multi-informant Twin Study
Hudziak, J. J., Derks, E. M., Althoff, R. R., Copeland, W., & Boomsma, D. I. (2005) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000169011.73912.27 · Cited by 40
“Eaves et al. (2000) used twins ages 6–18, whereas Burt et al. (2001) limited their study to the 11-year-old age group.”
Result
Comorbid ADHD: Implications for the Treatment of Anxiety Disorders in Children and Adolescents
Halldorsdottir, T., & Ollendick, T. H. (2013) · Cognitive and Behavioral Practice · doi:10.1016/j.cbpra.2013.08.003 · Cited by 57
Externalizing disorders and environmental risk: mechanisms of gene–environment interplay and strategies for intervention
Samek, D. R., & Hicks, B. M. (2014) · Clinical Practice · doi:10.2217/cpr.14.47 · Cited by 62
Examining Relationships Between Executive Functioning and Delay Aversion in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Karalunas, S. L., & Huang-Pollock, C. L. (2011) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2011.614578 · Cited by 44
“Current theory suggests that the etiology of ADHD may overlap with that of other externalizing disorders and that children with other externalizing disorders may also have dysfunctional reward processing (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iacono, 2001 ; Krueger, Caspi, Moffitt, & Silva, 1998 ).”
Background
Psychiatric disorder in the children of antisocial parents
Herndon, R. W., & Iacono, W. G. (2005) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291705005635 · Cited by 51
“ADHD, CD, or ODD), disorders that first onset in childhood and have been shown to be highly co-morbid (Burt et al. 2001).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Family Transmission and Heritability of Externalizing Disorders: A Twin-Family Study
Hicks, B. M., Krueger, R. F., Iacono, W. G., McGue, M., & Patrick, C. J. (2004) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.61.9.922 · Cited by 46
Self-citation
Genetic and Environmental Influences on the Relationship Between Aggression and Hyperactivity-impulsivity as Rated by Teachers and Parents
Vierikko, E., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., & Rose, R. (2004) · Twin Research · doi:10.1375/twin.7.3.261 · Cited by 46
“…effects were expected to be of modest or moderate magnitude, but the common environmental correlation was hypothesized to be close to unity (Burt et al, 2001; Schmitz & Mrazek, 2001), and the correlation from unique environments moderate at most (Nadder et al., 2002; Nadder et al., 1998;…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior: How do kids become antisocial adults?
Blazei, R. W. H., Iacono, W. G., & Krueger, R. F. (2006) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appsy.2006.07.001 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
Hyperactive-Impulsive Symptom Scores and Oppositional Behaviours Reflect Alternate Manifestations of a Single Liability
Wood, A. C., Rijsdijk, F. V., Asherson, P. J., & Kuntsi, J. (2009) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-009-9290-z · Cited by 37
“A second issue is that previous studies have frequently combined hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattentiveness when examining the relationship between symptoms of ADHD and symptoms of ODD ( Burt et al. 2001; Dick et al. 2005; Thapar et al. 2001) and CD (Young et al. 2000).”
Influential
Externalizing problems, attention regulation, and household chaos: A longitudinal behavioral genetic study
Wang, Z., Deater-Deckard, K. D., Petrill, S. A., & Thompson, L. A. (2012) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579412000351 · Cited by 49
Identifying childhood characteristics that underlie premorbid risk for substance use disorders: Socialization and boldness
Hicks, B. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. K. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000862 · Cited by 43
Self-citation
Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship between aggression and hyperactivity-impulsivity as rated by teachers and parents
Vierikko, E., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., & Rose, R. J. (2004) · Twin Research · doi:10.1375/136905204774200541 · Cited by 38
Associations between substance use disorders and major depression in parents and late adolescent–emerging adult offspring: an adoption study
Marmorstein, N. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. K. (2012) · Addiction · doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2012.03934.x · Cited by 45
Self-citation
The alcohol‐aggression relationship and differential sensitivity to alcohol
Pihl, R. O., Assaad, J., & Hoaken, P. N. S. (2003) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.10072 · Cited by 36
“The above collection of descriptors, often thought of as negative behavioral traits, have shown high heritability quotients [ Burt et al., 2001 ].”
Background
Elucidating the validity of the externalizing spectrum of psychopathology in correctional, forensic, and community samples.
Sellbom, M. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000171 · Cited by 40
Sensation seeking, peer deviance, and genetic influences on adolescent delinquency: Evidence for person-environment correlation and interaction.
Mann, F. D., Patterson, M. W., Grotzinger, A. D., Kretsch, N., Tackett, J. L., Tucker–Drob, E. M., & Harden, K. P. (2016) · Journal of Abnormal Psychology · doi:10.1037/abn0000160 · Cited by 71
The Interplay Among Preschool Child and Family Factors and the Development of ODD Symptoms
Harvey, E. A., & Metcalfe, L. A. (2012) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2012.673161 · Cited by 33
“Research suggests that environments (Burt, Krueger, McGue, & Iocono, 2001 ) and biological factors, including genetics and prenatal and perinatal complications (Brennan, Grekin, & Mednick, 2003 ), play a role in the development of ODD.”
Background
Heterogeneity in antisocial behaviours and comorbidity with depressed mood: a behavioural genetic approach
Rowe, R., Rijsdijk, F. V., Maughan, B., Eley, T. C., Hosang, G. M., & Eley, T. C. (2008) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.01834.x · Cited by 31
The development of externalizing symptoms from late childhood through adolescence: A longitudinal study of Mexican-origin youth.
Atherton, O. E., Ferrer, E. E., & Robins, R. W. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000489 · Cited by 35
Genetic and environmental influences on the codevelopment among borderline personality disorder traits, major depression symptoms, and substance use disorder symptoms from adolescence to young adulthood
Bornovalova, M. A., Verhulst, B., Webber, T., McGue, M. K., Iacono, W. G., & Hicks, B. M. (2017) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579417000463 · Cited by 35
Self-citation
An Integrative Common Liabilities Model for the Comorbidity of Substance Use Disorders with Externalizing and Internalizing Disorders
Tully, E. C., & Iacono, W. G. (2014) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199381708.013.20 · Cited by 21
Self-citation
ADHD, ODD, and CD: Do They Belong to a Common Psychopathological Spectrum? A Case Series
Ghosh, S., & Sinha, M. (2012) · Case Reports in Psychiatry · doi:10.1155/2012/520689 · Cited by 25
Disentangling the relative contribution of parental antisociality and family discord to child disruptive disorders.
Bornovalova, M. A., Blazei, R. W. H., Malone, S. H., McGue, M. K., & Iacono, W. G. (2012) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/a0028607 · Cited by 31
“Because the three DBDs have been reported to reflect an underlying externalizing (EXT) dimension (Burt et al., 2001), an EXT variable was created by taking the first principal component of the symptoms of the three DBDs.”
MethodSelf-citation
Classification of Psychopathology
Acton, G., & Zodda, J. J. (2005) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/0959354305053220 · Cited by 25
Foreign language learning for children with ADHD: evidence from a technology-enhanced learning environment
Liontou, T. (2019) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2019.1581403 · Cited by 40
“…ﬁ c task, make careless mistakes, struggle to follow instructions and complete tasks on time, keep ﬁ dgeting and squirming in their seat and give the impression of daydreaming and “ tuning out ’ when not interested in the lesson (Taylor 2017; Burt et al. 2001; Lock, Worley, and Worlaich 2008).”
Background
A Methylome-Wide Association Study of Trajectories of Oppositional Defiant Behaviors and Biological Overlap With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Barker, E. D., Walton, E., Cecil, C. A. M., Rowe, R., Jaffee, S. R., Maughan, B., O’Connor, T. G., Stringaris, A. K., Meehan, A. J., McArdle, W. L., et al. (2017) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.12957 · Cited by 27
Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research
Iacono, W. G., McGue, M. K., & Krueger, R. F. (2006) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1375/183242706779462642 · Cited by 104
“We have also found that the covariance among conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and ADHD was due to common environments (Burt et al., 2001), with a third of the covariation among these disruptive disorders accounted for by parent–child conflict acting via both genetic and environmental paths, suggesting…”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Common genetic and nonshared environmental factors contribute to the association between socioemotional dispositions and the externalizing factor in children
Taylor, J. E., Allan, N. P., Mikolajewski, A. J., & Hart, S. A. (2012) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02621.x · Cited by 22
“In addition, future studies should build on the work of Burt et al. (2003) in identifying what measurable variables comprise the shared environmental effects on the latent Externalizing factor in children. Parent-child conflict within the family appears to be one such variable (Burt et al.), and future work could buil…”
BackgroundInfluential
The effects of childhood disruptive disorder comorbidity on P3 event-related brain potentials in preadolescents with ADHD
Yoon, H. H., Iacono, W. G., Malone, S. M., Bernat, E. M., & McGue, M. K. (2008) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2008.08.001 · Cited by 21
“…probable (one symptom short of the eight needed for a definite diagnosis) or definite (all diagnostic criteria satisfied) levels of certainty using a best-estimate approach that combined mother and child reports and that has demonstrated construct validity in this sample (e.g., Burt et al., 2001).”
Self-citation
Adolescent twins discordant for major depressive disorder: shared familial liability to externalizing and other internalizing disorders
Burcusa, S. L., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. K. (2003) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00184 · Cited by 22
Self-citation
Prevention of serious conduct problems in youth with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder
Villodas, M. T., Pfiffner, L. J., & McBurnett, K. (2012) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/ern.12.119 · Cited by 20
Testing Multiple Conceptualizations of Oppositional Defiant Disorder in Youth
Ollendick, T. H., Booker, J. A., Ryan, S., & Greene, R. W. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2017.1286594 · Cited by 20
Genetics of ADHD, Hyperactivity, and Attention Problems
Derks, E., Hudziak, J., & Boomsma, D. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-76727-7_25 · Cited by 18
Childhood ODD and ADHD behavior: The effect of classroom sharing, gender, teacher gender and their interactions
de Zeeuw, E. L., van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Lubke, G. H., Glasner, T. J., & Boomsma, D. I. (2015) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-015-9712-z · Cited by 17
“The finding of common environmental effects is consistent with earlier studies of ODD behavior using parental ratings (Burt et al. 2001; Tuvblad et al. 2009).”
Result
Diversidade de resultados no estudo do transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade
Oliveira, C., & Albuquerque, P. (2009) · Psicologia Teoria e Pesquisa · doi:10.1590/s0102-37722009000100011 · Cited by 17
Emerging research and theory in the etiology of oppositional defiant disorder: Current concerns and future directions.
McKinney, C., & Renk, K. (2007) · International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy · doi:10.1037/h0100811 · Cited by 17
“To make this determination, Slutske and colleagues (2003) examined results from two twin studies (Burt et al., 2001; Eaves et al., 2001).”
A multi-factorial perspective on ADHD and ODD in school-aged children: What is the role of cognitive regulation, temperament, and parental support?
Frick, M. A., & Brocki, K. C. (2019) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2019.1641185 · Cited by 22
“…the symptoms are dimensional traits found also in the general population, and that these traits phenotypically and genetically represent the same phenomena as a diagnosis (Burt et al., 2001; Frick & Nigg, 2012; Martin, Hamshere, Stergiakouli, O’Donovan, & Thapar, 2014; Middeldorp et al., 2016).”
Background
Examining the Role of Genetic Risk and Longitudinal Transmission Processes Underlying Maternal Parenting and Psychopathology and Children’s ADHD Symptoms and Aggression: Utilizing the Advantages of a Prospective Adoption Design
Sellers, R., Harold, G. T., Thapar, A., Neiderhiser, J. M., Ganiban, J. M., Reiss, D., Shaw, D. S., Natsuaki, M. N., & Leve, L. D. (2020) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-020-10006-y · Cited by 20

Authors: Burt, S. A., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G.
Affiliations: University of Minnesota (US)
ORCID: Burt, S. Alexandra
Krueger, Robert F.
McGue, Matt
Iacono, William G.
Venue: Journal of Abnormal Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2001-11
Volume: 110
Issue: 4
Pages: 516-525
ISSN: 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
1939-1846
DOI: 10.1037/0021-843x.110.4.516
OpenAlex: W2066945802
Cited by: 176
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 3 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 1 · 2023: 8 · 2021: 4 · 2020: 2 · 2019: 10 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 8 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 13
FWCI: 3.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (1k02aa000175-01)
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (AA-00175, AA-09367)
National Institute of Mental Health (T32MH017069, 2T32 MH17069-18)
National Institute on Drug Abuse (DA-05147)
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, externalizing disorders, shared environment, nonshared environment, genetic factors, twin studies, Minnesota Twin Family Study, child psychopathology
MeSH terms: Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity, Child, Environment, Female, Humans, Male, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Severity of Illness Index, Sex Factors, Twins, Conduct Disorder, Attention Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders

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Sources of covariation among attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, and conduct Disorder:The importance of shared environment

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