Optimizing well-being: The empirical encounter of two traditions.

“Costa and McCrae (1980) demonstrated the differential links between extraversion and positive affect and between neuroticism and negative affect, a finding confirmed in later studies (e.g., Emmons & Diener, 1985; Headey & Wearing, 1989; Watson & Clark, 1992) and purportedly explained by an array of…”

“Among exciting new directions for promoting healthy living, particularly among those who most need it (i.e., individuals who suffer from recurrent depression), is well-being therapy (Fava, 1999; Fava et al., 1998).”

“During the last 40 years, social scientists have conceptualized, measured, and studied the measurement structure of mental health through the investigation of subjective well-being (e.g., Headey, Kelley, and Wearing, 1993; Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff, 2002).”

“These perspectives, which have informed distinct bodies of research in positive mental health, are less obvious in the literature relating to poor mental health, where items measuring affect (feeling happy/sad) are often combined with items measuring psychological functioning (playing a useful part in things, making d…”

“Nearly half a century of research has yielded as many as 13 symptoms (i.e., measures) of mental health that, when factor analyzed, represent either the latent structure of hedonic wellbeing or eudaimonic well-being ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Keyes & Waterman, 2003; McGregor & Little, 1998; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Wat…”

“…agenda, the impetus to launch the NIMH may have been responsible for planting the seeds of the study of subjective well-being as it appears today in the traditions of eudaimonic and hedonic well-being (Keyes et al., 2002) and which now form the basis for the review of mental health in this article.”

“Two traditions of well-being research are currently distinguished: one focuses on hedonic well-being, the other on eudaimonic well-being (Keyes et al. 2002; Ryan and Deci 2001; Waterman 1993).”

“Overall, our findings did not help us to conclusively determine whether life satisfaction is a non-specific well-being outcome, or whether it is specifically a hedonic variable, as some authors have suggested (Compton et al. 1996; Keyes et al. 2002).”

“Eudaemonic well-being can also be conceptualized in the context of realizing one’s true potential across one’s lifespan ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002; Ryff & Keyes, 1995; Ryff & Singer, 1998).”

“SWB and PWB are separate concepts, with different theoretical positions, causes, correlates, and consequences (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff & Keyes, 1995).”

“... (Hutzell, 1995; Hutzell & Finck, 1994) shows that purpose is negatively correlated with psychopathology (Kish & Moddy, 1989): Higher scores on McAdam’s (2001) three complementary scales of “generativity” are associated with better parenting, as well as higher levels of social activity and political activism, highe…”

“Even this substantial percentage underestimates the degree of common variance, however, because in the best fitting structural model, the self-acceptance and environmental mastery dimensions loaded on both the SWB and eudaimonia latent factors (Keyes et al., 2002).”

“The reason is that the two types of well-being are typically but not always associated (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001).”

“1999), with distinctions increasingly drawn between eudaimonic and hedonic aspects of well-being (Waterman 1993; Kahneman et al. 1999; Keyes et al. 2002; Ryan & Deci 2001).”

“Thus, the CEI measures two distinct but related components of curiosity.”

“Furthermore, though Twenge and King (2003) found relationships to be valued over work, American workers have been spending increasingly more time at work (cf.”

“We can distinguish between two conceptualizations of well-being: subjective and psychological ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ).”

“Kraut ( 1979 ), a philosopher, defines hedonia as ‘the belief that one is getting the important things one wants, as well as certain pleasant affects that normally go along with this belief’ (p.”

“For example, Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) distinguished between subjective well-being and psychological well-being.”

“Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) argued that while PWB and SWB dimensions are related to each other, they remain empirically distinct.”

“The second tradition, which focuses on psychological well-being, grew out of formulations of adult development and personal growth (Keyes et al., 2002).”

“Several studies have shown that a single higher order PWB factor exists above the subscales (e.g., Keyes et al., 2002; Ryff and Keyes, 1995), and previous research has either used the sub-scales individually (e.g., McGregor and Little, 1998; Ryff et al., 2006; Wood et al., 2009) or as a total PWB…”

“…Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006), the Purpose in Life test (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1967), and the purpose in life subscale of Ryff’s Scale of Psychological Well-being (Keyes et al., 2002); items drawn from these measures were adapted to assess the present study’s conception of the purpose construct.”

“From an integrative perspective, we regard them as separate core dimensions of well-being and evidence for mental health rather than the absence of mental illness (Keyes, 2010; Keyes, 2002; Ryan and Deci, 2001; Shir, 2015).”

“…and integrate the proposed models of wellbeing has also been hindered because the analyses of the proposed structure have come almost exclusively from a single data source: the National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States (MID- US) 1 national survey (Keyes, 2005; Keyes et al., 2002).”

“Although Keyes et al. (2002) conducted a CFA with latent factors, the authors used the results of logistic regression and discriminant function analyses with scale scores to support the discriminant validity of Hedonia and Eudaimonia.”

“Recent analyses have documented that hedonic and eudaimonic well-being are related but distinct constructs, and that the likelihood of having high levels of one, both, or neither is predicted by age, educational standing, and personality characteristics ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ).”

“Specifically, functional indicators of mental health in the forms of psychological well-being focus on the degree to which individuals are able to achieve their full potential and actualize their authentic selves (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ; Ryan & Deci, 2001 ), whereas social well-being refers to the degree to wh…”

“Keyes et al. (2002) found adults with high levels of both SWB and PWB were more likely than adults with low scores on both scales to be highly educated and older.”

“As previously observed (6, 14, 27), hedonic and eudaimonic well-being were positively correlated (r = 0.”

“Clearly, SWB is not the only conceptualization of interest to well-being researchers, nor does it provide a complete account of positive quality of life (Keyes, 2003; Keyes et al., 2002).”

“In two previous studies of psychological well-being using the Midlife in the United States Study, fewer items were also used to measure each dimension (Keyes et al. 2002; Ryff et al. 2003).”

“…and life satisfaction, with affect being measured using positive and negative affect measures specifically developed for the purpose (see e.g., Keyes et al., 2002) or the validated Positive and Negative Affect Scales (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988; see, e.g., Govindji & Linley, 2007) and…”

“Motiv Emot (2007) 31:271–283 275 Keyes et al. (2002) distinguish between psychological well-being, and another related, but distinct, aspect of wellbeing: subjective well-being.”

“For this reason, Ryff and Keyes (1995) and Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) explicitly predicted that the measures of psychological well-being are overlapping with the measures of emotional well-being (satisfaction with life and positive affect).”

“In our discussion of well-being, we refer to functional definitions of social and psychological well-being that emphasize the achievement of mental health as opposed to hedonic or experiential measures of well-being such as affect and happiness (Keyes, 1998; Keyes, Ryff & Shmotkin, 2002; Ryff, 1989).”

“In more recent conceptions, hedonism is operationalized as SWB, and involves the frequent experience of positive affect, a rare experience of negative affect, and a feeling of satisfaction with life (Diener, 1984).”

“Recently, Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002), using data from the Midlife in the U.S. (MIDUS) survey, documented that psychological , or eudaimonic well-being (operationalized by the above dimensions), is conceptually related to, but empirically distinct from, subjective (hedonic) well-being…”

“Despite some overlap, there are data to suggest their distinction (Keyes et al. 2002; Waterman 1993).”

“Finally, on each occasion, participants completed the PWB scale (Ryff and Keyes, 1995; Keyes et al., 2002), an 18-item measures of psychosocial thriving (a’s = 0.78, 0.81, and 0.83).”

“Two distinct theoretical perspectives have informed characterizations of psychological well-being: the eudaimonic approach defines well-being according to one’s ability to identify meaningful life pursuits and striving to achieve one’s best; and the hedonic approach defines well-being according to pursuing and attaini…”

“Historically, research on well-being has highlighted two broad traditions: one relating to happiness or hedonic well-being often referred to as subjective well-being (SWB); and the other relating to human potential or eudaemonic wellbeing often referred to as psychological well-being (PWB; Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 200…”

“However, the identification of life satisfaction and subjective well-being with pleasure and positive emotion has been seriously challenged because people can regard themselves as well even when they are suffering, if they regard their unpleasant experience as meaningful and purposeful (Cassell, 1999; Keyes et al., 20…”

“conceptualized as subjective well-being (Keyes et al., 2002), and”

“Taking both the hedonic and the eudaimonic approaches into account, PMH can be defined as the presence of general emotional, psychological, and social well-being [32].”

“In addition, all of the above studies utilized measures of hedonic well-being, which is centred on maximization of pleasure and minimization of pain, namely, subjective happiness, affectivity measures and satisfaction with life, which also largely reflects hedonic well-being (Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ; Vitterso,…”

“Psychological well-being is conceptually distinct from subjective well-being (Keyes et al., 2002; Ryan & Deci, 2001; Waterman, 1993), and involves such traits as involving autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance (Ryff & Keyes, 1995).”

“Research indicates that meaning in life is inversely related to negative affect and emotions (e.g., Chamberlain & Zika, 1988; Kennedy et al., 1994; Keyes et al., 2002; Steger, Kashdan, et al., 2008; Steger, Oishi, et al., in press; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992), including fear, anger, shame, and sadness (Steger et al.”

“Keyes et al. (2002) have proposed uniting these two perspectives in the concept of optimal well-being, combining measures of subjective well-being and psychological well-being into a single index.”

“Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) have examined how these approaches relate to each other, concluding that they are complementary and measure different phenomena.”

“Personal growth: Developing one’s potential, and growing and expanding as a person Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002) argue that although the eudemonic and SWB constructs are related to each other, they are empirically distinct.”

“Most models of well-being propose that optimal functioning occurs when someone is high on several types of well-being, yet few studies have explored the existence of unique well-being profiles that occur within subsets of people (see Keyes et al., 2002 for an example).”

“Although this “personal well-being” [113] may generate SWB, SWB is not guaranteed.”

“The two components of positive affect that have most frequently been examined are life satisfaction and general happiness, whereas depressive symptoms are the most commonly studied aspect of negative affect ( Keyes, Shmotkin, & Ryff, 2002 ).”

“4.2 Purpose Commitment Purpose commitment was assessed using a 15-item measure developed by Bundick et al. (2006), which borrows items from previous inventories (Crumbaugh and Maholick 1967; Keyes et al. 2002; Steger et al. 2006).”

“Despite the absence of consensus regarding the conceptual basis of PWB, three main research perspectives are acknowledged to be influential (Diener 1984; Keyes et al. 2002; Ryan and Deci 2001; Waterman 1993):”

“The reported experiences would be those of well-being, satisfaction and full-functioning (Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff 2002; Ryff and Singer 2000; Ryan and Deci 2001; Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002).”

“This scale was used in previous studies.(44) 45 Detailed categories of each variable are presented in table 1.”

“These variables were inserted for control, because they have been related to well-being (Arthaud-Day et al., 2005; Hellgren and Sverke, 2003; Keyes et al., 2002; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005, 2006; Rego and Cunha, 2009b; Shaw and Gupta, 2004).”

“Eudaimonic and hedonic wellbeing have also been found to be highly correlated (r = 0.70) and reciprocally influence one another (Keyes et al. 2002; Waterman 1993).”