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Who is this "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations.
Abstract
Cross-cultural perspectives have brought renewed interest in the social aspects of the self and the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of their relationships to others and to social groups. This article provides a conceptual review of research and theory of the social self, arguing that the personal, relational, and collective levels of self-definition represent distinct forms of selfrepresentation with different origins, sources of self-worth, and social motivations. A set of 3 experiments illustrates haw priming of the interpersonal or collective we can alter spontaneous judgments of similarity and self-descriptions. Until recently, social psychological theories of the self focused on the individuated self-concept—the person's sense of unique identity differentiated from others. Cross-cultural perspectives, however, have brought a renewed interest in the social aspects of the self and the extent to which individuals define themselves in terms of their relationships to others and to social groups (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, & Lucca, 1988). Central to this new perspective is the idea that connectedness and belonging are not merely affiliations or alliances between the self and others but entail fundamental differences in the way the self is construed (Brewer, 1991; Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994; Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991; Triandis, 1989; Turner, Oakes, Haslam, & McGarty, 1994). Some of these theories of the social self focus on cross-cultural differences in whether the self is typically construed as individuated or interpersonal. However, all recognize that these different self-construals may also coexist within the same individual, available to be activated at different times or in different contexts. Furthermore, in several theories, achieving an extended sense of self has the status of a fundamental human motivation (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Brewer, 1991). In other words, individuals seek to define themselves in terms of their immersion in relationships with others and with larger collectives and derive much of their self-evaluation from such social identities (Breckler & Greenwald, 1986; Greenwald & Breckler, 1985). The motivational properties of collective identities are systematically documented in Baumeister and Leary's (1995) comprehensive review of the evidence in support of a fundamental need to belong as an innate feature of human nature. All of the theories mentioned above draw some kind of distinction between the individuated or personal self (those aspects of the self-concept that differentiate the self from all others) and a relational or social self (those aspects of the self-concept that
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“In contrast, cultures that emphasize the values of individualism, low power distance, and low uncertainty avoidance create a cultural environment that supports the expression of one's unique ideas and the exploration of new ways of doing things (Brewer & Chen, 2007; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Kim & Markus, 1999).”
From Creativity: The Influence of Cultural, Social, and Work Contexts (2010) · cites this paper as Brewer & Gardner, 1996
In the citing paper
“Individuals need to balance the tension between their need to distinguish them selves from others and be unique individuals, and their willingness to belong to others and assimilate (Brewer & Chen, 2007; Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
From Creativity: The Influence of Cultural, Social, and Work Contexts (2010) · cites this paper as Brewer & Gardner, 1996
In the citing paper
“Assimilation vs. differentiation needs are related to the values of collectivism vs. individualism (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
From Creativity: The Influence of Cultural, Social, and Work Contexts (2010) · cites this paper as Brewer & Gardner, 1996
In the citing paper
“Under the social self, we can further differentiate between the relational and the collective self [17, 18].”
From Self-esteem and subjective well-being revisited: The roles of personal, relational, and collective self-esteem (2017) · cites this paper as [17]
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“This is surprising given the importance of social groups to an individual’s identity and self-worth (Baumeister & Leary, 1995) and the well-documented effects of group membership on one’s cognitions, emotions, and behaviors (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Tajfel & Turner, 1986).”
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“Accordingly, this study adds to the exploration of leadership behaviors relevant for team identification that have not been considered by extant research.”
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“The relative influence of a particular self-aspect is thought to be context-dependent, i.e., situational factors can emphasize or deemphasize certain aspects of self (e.g., Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991).”
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“This extends a person’s self-identity to include collective identity based on group membership (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
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“By taking people from the same socioecological background and presenting them with subtle cues associated with an interdependent mind-set (e.g. Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991), one can examine its effects on choice justification experimentally.”
BackgroundSmith, E. R., & Mackie, D. M. (2016) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2016.04.005 · Cited by 57
McClung, J., Placì, S., Bangerter, A., Clément, F., & Bshary, R. (2017) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.1682 · Cited by 59
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“Consistent with theory (e.g., Brewer and Gardner 1996), these results indicate the three identity levels are distinguishable.”
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Kim, S. H., Vincent, L. C., & Goncalo, J. A. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0029728 · Cited by 62
“…Statistics Study Positive affect Self-concept Social rejection Interaction 1 .12, t(39) 0.46, p .21, 2 .02 .20, t(39) 1.27, p .21, 2 .04 .06, t(39) 0.22, p .82, 2 .00 2 F(1, 76) .003, p .96, 2 .00 F(1, 76) 1.47, p .23, 2 .02 F(1, 76) 0.03, p .86, 2 .00 3 F(1, 96) 0.12, p .73, 2 .001…”
MethodInfluentialCremer, D. D., van Knippenberg, D., van Dijk, E., & van Leeuwen, E. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00359.x · Cited by 57
“The more the self is defined in collective terms (i.e., the collective self; Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Turner, 1987), the more collective goals will be experienced as the own goals, and collective interests as self-interests (i.e., collective self-interests rather than personal self-interests; De…”
Hwang, K., & Lee, J. (2018) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su10030789 · Cited by 57
“Brewer and Gardner [76] suggested three distinct aspects of self-construal related to the notion that all humans have the fundamental need for belongingness (in this case, males also seek to fulfill their need, belongingness); these aspects are personal aspect (similar to Cross and Madson’s independent self-construal)…”
BackgroundRelationships Between Organizational Commitment and Its Antecedents: Employee Self‐Concept Matters
Johnson, R. E., & Chang, C.-H. D. (2008) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00315.x · Cited by 57
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Stapel, D. A., & van der Zee, K. I. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.258 · Cited by 56
“Salience of a collective self-construal is associated with the activation of self-construal in terms of a group prototype (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialRetractedNot all one and the same: Sexual identity, activism, and collective self-esteem
Gray, A., & Desmarais, S. (2014) · The Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality · doi:10.3138/cjhs.2400 · Cited by 56
“Consonance between the more internal and private evaluation of one’s group versus the more public and normative perception of that group usually results in high positive outcomes (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
BackgroundHow Organizational Identity Affects Team Functioning: The Identity Instrumentality Hypothesis
Mesmer‐Magnus, J., Asencio, R., Seely, P. W., & DeChurch, L. A. (2015) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206315614370 · Cited by 60
“…Academy of Management, INGroup); and (4) a reverse citation search of and review of references within foundational articles on collective identity (e.g., Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Edwards, 2005; Hogg & Terry, 2000; Mael & Ashforth, 1992; Tajfel & Turner, 1979; Tsui, Egan, & O’Reilly, 1992).”
BackgroundCustomer-customer interactions (CCIs) at conferences: An identity approach
Wei, W., Lu, Y. T., Miao, L., Cai, L. A., & Wang, C.-Y. (2016) · Tourism Management · doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2016.08.002 · Cited by 56
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“Others have noted the importance of the personal self in alignments to groups (e.g., Baray, Postmes, & Jetten, 2009; Brewer & Gardner, 1996), in that identification weakens when people recognize that the ingroup prototype deviates from personal values (Becker & Tausch, 2014; Ellemers, van den…”
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“Positive Illusions in Parenting: Every Child is Above Average”
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Strangers in a British World? Integration of international nurses
Winkelmann–Gleed, A., & Seeley, J. (2005) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2005.14.18.19880 · Cited by 55
Psychological Underpinnings of Brands
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Courtney, E. P., Felig, R. N., & Goldenberg, J. L. (2022) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12487 · Cited by 53
“Priming a sense of either individualism or collectivism was accomplished using a pronoun identification task originally developed by Brewer and Gardner (1996) and refined byGardner, Gabriel, and Lee (1999; for review, see Oyserman & Lee, 2008).”
MethodStock, G. B., Banks, G. C., Voss, E. N., Tonidandel, S., & Woznyj, H. M. (2022) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2022.101632 · Cited by 72
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Boroş, S. (2008) · Research portal (Tilburg University) · Cited by 54
“I Can Walk Both Ways” Identity Integration of American Indians in Oklahoma
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“…a story with an interdependent or independent theme (Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991), circling interdependent pronouns such as we and ours (Brewer & Gardner, 1996), being exposed to pictures associated with Chinese or American culture (Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000), and…”
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Grohsjean, T., Kober, P., & Zucchini, L. (2015) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2014.0200 · Cited by 54
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A prosocial self‐concept approach to understanding organizational citizenship behavior
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“) and a multi-dimensional construct ( Brewer and Gardner, 1996”
BackgroundWickert, C. M. J., Vaccaro, A., & Cornelissen, J. (2015) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-2740-z · Cited by 54
“Based on this stream of literature and the work of Brewer and Gardner (1996), which has been extended by Brickson (2005), we assume that while most organisations carry elements of all three orientations in them, they more likely than not have one dominant identity orientation: MNCs are most likely either individualist…”
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“In fact, the self is an important part of how individuals define themselves (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
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Ramarajan, L., Berger, I. E., & Greenspan, I. (2017) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2017.1129 · Cited by 54
“Individualistic and collective identities are fundamental aspects of the self-concept and therefore especially important to examine in combination with prosocial identities (Brewer and Gardner 1996).”
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Wang, Y., & Li, H. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02640 · Cited by 57
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“By activating the informants’ workplace-based collective identity, the shared characteristics become more salient, sharpening the distinction between collective actors and outsiders (Brewer and Gardner 1996).”
BackgroundResultFriendships of Indonesian, South Korean, and U.S. college students
French, D. C., BAE, A., Pidada, S. U., & Lee, O. (2006) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2006.00105.x · Cited by 52
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“In their analysis of the social self, Brewer and Gardner (1996) accordingly make a distinction between the collective self (corresponding to perceiving the self in terms of group membership) and the relational”
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Utz, S. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.03.001 · Cited by 52
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“…some social identities, such as student, can operate interchangeably as role-based, group-based, and category-based identities, others more consistently reflect particular types of identification (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Sedikides & Brewer, 2001) and may relate in unique ways to identity support.”
BackgroundHameed, I., Ijaz, M. U., & Sabharwal, M. (2021) · Public Personnel Management · doi:10.1177/00910260211001397 · Cited by 51
“This perceived respect and support enhances an employees’ self-representation, which reinforces their identity with the organization (Brewer & Gardner, 1996; George & Chattopadhyay, 2005) leading to their psychological well-being.”
BackgroundClarysse, B., Andries, P., Boone, S., & Roelandt, J. (2022) · Research Policy · doi:10.1016/j.respol.2022.104713 · Cited by 52
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“When the personal self is salient, people tend to strive for self-enhancement and to focus on self-benefit (Brewer and Gardner 1996; Lee et al. 2000; Utz 2004).”
BackgroundInfluentialUnraveling the Relationship Between Family-Supportive Supervisor and Employee Performance
Wang, P., Walumbwa, F. O., Wang, H., & Aryee, S. (2013) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601112472726 · Cited by 51
The Contagion of Unethical Pro-organizational Behavior: From Leaders to Followers
Zhang, Y., He, B., & Sun, X. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01102 · Cited by 52
““Selfconcept” in this context is taken to include the collective self, the relational self, and the personal self (Brewer and Gardner, 1996; Miao et al., 2013).”
BackgroundFladerer, M. P., Haslam, S. A., Steffens, N. K., & Frey, D. (2020) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-019-09677-0 · Cited by 63
“On the basis of social identity theorizing, we propose that CEOs’ use of we-referencing language in these letters both is indicative of their own identification as well as stimulates a sense of shared identity that encourages other members of the organization to identify both with the CEO and with the organization as…”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf‐reference and group membership: evidence for a group‐reference effect
Johnson, C., Gadon, O., Carlson, D., Southwick, S., Faith, M. S., & Chalfin, J. (2002) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.83 · Cited by 51
Self‐construal and social comparison effects
Cheng, R. W., & Lam, S. (2006) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709905x72795 · Cited by 51
Personal transformation in multistakeholder environmental partnerships
Poncelet, E. C. (2001) · Policy Sciences · doi:10.1023/a:1012659519803 · Cited by 53
“Action is treated here as the product of agents drawing upon cultural knowledge under the constraints of material and social circumstances ( Bourdieu, 1977; 1990 ).”
BackgroundIdentity formation in multiparty negotiations
Swaab, R. I., Postmes, T., & Spears, R. (2007) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466607x216124 · Cited by 50
“…by distinctions between common bond and common identity groups (Prentice, Miller, & Lightdale, 1994), interpersonal and collective identities (Brewer & Gardner, 1996), relational and collective identities (Yuki, 2003) and dynamic and categorical groups (Wilder & Simon, 1998), Postmes and…”
BackgroundHuman Capital Resources Emergence Theory: The Role of Social Capital
Ray, C., Nyberg, A. J., & Maltarich, M. A. (2021) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2020.0186 · Cited by 50
Cool brands and hot attachments: their effect on consumers’ willingness to pay more
Koskie, M. M., & Locander, W. B. (2023) · European Journal of Marketing · doi:10.1108/ejm-02-2022-0086 · Cited by 54
van Prooijen, J., & van den Bos, K. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209344728 · Cited by 52
Leavitt, K., Fong, C. T., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.746 · Cited by 49
“We argue here that low correspondence between implicit and explicit attitudes might lead employees to not merge their self-concept with the greater ''we,'' a process which has been demonstrated to be influenced by subtle and non-conscious processes (Brewer & Gardner, 1996).”
BackgroundConsumers' identification and beyond: Attraction, reverence, and escapism in the evaluation of films
Addis, M., & Holbrook, M. B. (2010) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20359 · Cited by 50
Wan, C., & Chew, P. Y. (2013) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12029 · Cited by 54
Scope insensitivity in helping decisions: Is it a matter of culture and values?
Kogut, T., Slovic, P., & Västfjäll, D. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0039708 · Cited by 51
“11 In summary, the results of the pilot study suggest that the Bedouin students express higher collectivist values than the western Israelis (both horizontal and vertical); while the two groups express similar levels of the two individualistic values.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMullen, B. R., Migdal, M. J., & Rozell, D. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203252747 · Cited by 50
“Levels of Collective Identity and Self-Representations” (Brewer & Gardner, 1996) provide a testament to the durability, some might say the obduracy, of these questions.”
BackgroundBicultural Self, Multiple Social Identities, and Dual Patriotisms Among Ethnic Chinese in Hong Kong
Ng, S. H., & Lai, J. C. L. (2010) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022110361715 · Cited by 51
Gardner, W. L., Karam, E. P., Tribble, L. L., & Cogliser, C. C. (2018) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2349 · Cited by 52
Self-citationSpencer‐Oatey, H., & Kádár, D. Z. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781316810071 · Cited by 68
Culture and Psychology in the 21st Century
Kashima, Y. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022115599445 · Cited by 56
“On the other hand, cultural priming studies began to examine how cultural representations such as self-concepts (e.g., Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Trafimow, Triandis, & Goto, 1991) and cultural icons (e.g., Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martínez, 2000) can be momentarily activated, and influence…”
BackgroundTheorizing university identity development: multiple perspectives and common goals
MacDonald, G. P. (2012) · Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s10734-012-9526-3 · Cited by 49
Our Flaws Are More Human Than Yours
Koval, P., Laham, S., Haslam, N., Bastian, B., & Whelan, J. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211423777 · Cited by 47
“People derive important aspects of their identities from memberships in social groups (e.g., Brewer & Gardner, 1996; Sedikides & Brewer, 2001; Tajfel & Turner, 1986).”
BackgroundKim, D. H., Sung, Y., & Drumwright, M. E. (2016) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1238661 · Cited by 49
Becoming Who We Serve: A Model of Multi-Layered Employee–Customer Identification
Cardador, M. T., & Pratt, M. G. (2017) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2015.1201 · Cited by 51
Wang, L., & Cotton, R. (2017) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21856 · Cited by 52
Culture, context, and cognition: The Semantic Procedural Interface model of the self
Hannover, B., & Kühnen, U. (2004) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280440000053 · Cited by 49
“First, and most importantly, they support the notion that, depending on the context, individuals sometimes construe their selves as independent and at other times as interdependent (Brewer & Gardner, 1996, see also the concept of the working self, Hannover, 1997; Markus & Wurf, 1987).”
BackgroundA Multicultural View of Conflict Management Styles: Review and Critical Synthesis
Kim, M., & Leung, T. (2000) · Annals of the International Communication Association · doi:10.1080/23808985.2000.11678974 · Cited by 49
van Stekelenburg, J. (2006) · Digital Academic REpository of VU University Amsterdam (Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam) · Cited by 48
A Theory of Firm Value Capture from Employee Job Performance: A Multidisciplinary Perspective
Call, M. L., & Ployhart, R. E. (2020) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2018.0103 · Cited by 69
Metadata
- Authors
- Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W.
- Affiliations
- The Ohio State University (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1996-07
- Volume
- 71
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 83-93
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2015152577
- Cited by
- 3,401
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 143 · 2025: 139 · 2024: 123 · 2023: 164 · 2022: 154 · 2021: 176 · 2020: 251 · 2019: 195 · 2018: 166 · 2017: 155 · 2016: 158 · 2015: 156 · 2014: 168 · 2013: 147 · 2012: 180
- FWCI
- 55.08
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Representations and Identity
- Keywords
- collective identity, social self, self-construal, extended self, need to belong, self-representation, social identity, self-concept, similarity judgments, self-description, self-worth, social motivation, self-construal priming
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