For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations

Collins, Rebecca L.

doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51

Cited by 1,166Emotions and Moral BehaviorPersonality Traits and PsychologySocial and Intergroup Psychology

For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations

Collins, Rebecca L.·1996·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51

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Abstract

Upward social comparison is generally regarded as ego deflating, yet people often compare themselves with those whose abilities and attributes are better than their own. Upward comparison provides useful information, which may partially account for this behavior. Furthermore, it is proposed that upw

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Upward social comparison often triggers negative self-evaluation, resentment, and envy, but can also be motivating and self-enhancing.
“Upward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to those who are better off and although it often triggers negative self-evaluation, resentment, and envy, it can also be motivating and self-enhancing (Collins, 1996).”
From Relative Feedback Increases Disparities in Effort and Performance in Crowdsourcing Contests (2022) · cites this paper as Collins, 1996
Assimilative efforts involve the contrast of a bad present with an attainable positive future and may be enhanced by motivating upward comparisons.
“Assimilative efforts, on the other side, involve the contrast of a bad present with an attainable positive future and may be enhanced by motivating upward comparisons (see also Carver & Scheier, 1998;Collins, 1996;Wood, 1996;Wrosch & Heckhausen, 1996).”
From The Life-Course Dynamics of Goal Pursuit and Goal Adjustment: A Two-Process Framework (2002) · cites this paper as Collins, 1996

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Organizational Learning from Performance Feedback
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511615139 · Cited by 1,029 · see citing works
Effects of social support visibility on adjustment to stress: Experimental evidence.
Bolger, N. P., & Amarel, D. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.3.458 · Cited by 758 · see citing works
“Collins , 1996 ) .”
Goals as Reference Points
Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., & Wu, G. (1999) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1998.0708 · Cited by 1,009 · see citing works
“Like goals, ‘‘upward’’ comparisons provide the motivation and opportunity to improve one’s circumstance (Collins, 1996; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Larrick et al., 1998), whereas downward comparisons satisfy the desire to protect and enhance self-esteem (Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Tesser, 1988; Wills, 1981).”
Background
Role models in career development: New directions for theory and research
Gibson, D. E. (2003) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0001-8791(03)00051-4 · Cited by 732 · see citing works
The Staircase to Terrorism: A Psychological Exploration.
Moghaddam, F. M. (2005) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.60.2.161 · Cited by 1,208 · see citing works
What is social comparison and how should we study it?
Wood, J. V. (1996) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167296225009 · Cited by 697 · see citing works
The “online brain”: How the Internet may be changing our cognition
Firth, J., Torous, J., Stubbs, B., Firth, J. A., Steiner, G. Z., Smith, L., Alvarez‐Jimenez, M., Gleeson, J., Vancampfort, D., Armitage, C. J., et al. (2019) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.20617 · Cited by 694 · see citing works
Burnout: An Overview of 25 Years of Research and Theorizing
Schaufeli, W. B., & Buunk, B. P. (2002) · doi:10.1002/0470013400.ch19 · Cited by 666 · see citing works
Identity-based consumer behavior
Reed, A., Forehand, M., Puntoni, S., & Warlop, L. (2012) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2012.08.002 · Cited by 658 · see citing works
Dancing with Strangers: Aspiration Performance and the Search for Underwriting Syndicate Partners
Baum, J. A. C., Rowley, T. J., Shipilov, A. V., & Chuang, Y. (2005) · Administrative Science Quarterly · doi:10.2189/asqu.50.4.536 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
“This prediction follows research indicating that performance above historical aspirations increases decision makers’ confidence and produces upward striving goals (e.g., Collins, 1996; Levinthal and March, 1981; Lant, 1992; Wood, 1989; Baum and Lant, 2003).”
Female role models: protecting women's math test performance
Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672022812004 · Cited by 621 · see citing works
“The search for role models is generally a selective, social comparison process whereby certain attributes are copied and others excluded (Collins, 1996; Javidan, Bemmels, Devine, & Dastmalchian, 1995).”
BackgroundInfluential
Self-Compassion Increases Self-Improvement Motivation
Breines, J. G., & Chen, S. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212445599 · Cited by 652 · see citing works
Assimilative and Contrastive Emotional Reactions to Upward and Downward Social Comparisons
Smith, R. H. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_10 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
The Motivational Theory of Role Modeling: How Role Models Influence Role Aspirants’ Goals
Morgenroth, T., Ryan, M. K., & Peters, K. (2015) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/gpr0000059 · Cited by 575 · see citing works
“The idea that similarity is important for role aspirant expectancy assessment is not new and has been voiced several times in the social comparison literature (e.g., Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954; Wheeler et al., 1997).”
BackgroundInfluential
Organizational learning from performance feedback a behavioral perspective on innovation and change
Greve, H. R. (2003) · Cited by 468 · see citing works
Action Perspectives on Human Development
Brandtstädter, J. (2007) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470147658.chpsy0110 · Cited by 462 · see citing works
Explaining Differences in Societal Levels of Happiness: Relative Standards, Need Fulfillment, Culture, and Evaluation Theory
Diener, E., & Lucas, R. E. (2000) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1023/a:1010076127199 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Social comparison processes in organizations
Greenberg, J., Ashton-James, C. E., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.09.006 · Cited by 434 · see citing works
Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence.
Harkin, B., Webb, T. L., Chang, B. P. I., Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Kellar, I., Benn, Y., & Sheeran, P. (2016) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000025 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
“Given the pervasiveness of social comparison (e.g., Collins, 1996; Pinkus, Lockwood, Schimmack, & Fournier, 2008; Suls, Martin, & Wheeler, 2002) and evidence attesting to the substantive impact that others’ performance can have on self-regulatory processes (e.g., Aarts, Gollwitzer, & Hassin, 2004;…”
Background
Social Media Envy: How Experience Sharing on Social Networking Sites Drives Millennials’ Aspirational Tourism Consumption
Liu, H., Wu, L. L., & Li, X. R. (2018) · Journal of Travel Research · doi:10.1177/0047287518761615 · Cited by 414 · see citing works
The better-than-average effect in comparative self-evaluation: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis.
Zell, E., Strickhouser, J. E., Sedikides, C., & Alicke, M. D. (2019) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000218 · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Social Comparison in the Classroom: A Review
Dijkstra, P., Kuyper, H., van der Werf, G. P. C., Buunk, A. P., & van der Zee, Y. G. (2008) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654308321210 · Cited by 392 · see citing works
“…& Lichtman, 1985) have indeed found evidence for the self-enhancement motive of social comparison by showing, for instance, that individuals, especially when they are under stress, feel better about themselves when they compare themselves with others who are worse off (e.g., Collins, 1996, 2000).”
Background
The impact of motivation on temporal comparisons: Coping with traumatic events by perceiving personal growth.
McFarland, C., & Alvaro, C. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.79.3.327 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Why Envy Outperforms Admiration
van de Ven, N., Zeelenberg, M., & Pieters, R. G. M. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211400421 · Cited by 380 · see citing works
“Upward social comparisons have been found to influence people in various ways and can make people feel both worse and better about themselves (Collins, 1996).”
The Ups and Downs of Social Comparison: Mechanisms of Assimilation and Contrast.
Mussweiler, T., Rüter, K., & Epstude, K. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.6.832 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Neighborhoods and Academic Achievement: Results from the Moving to Opportunity Experiment
Sanbonmatsu, L., Kling, J. R., Duncan, G. J., & Jeanne Brooks-gunn, B. (2006) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w11909 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Feeling Superior: The Impact of Loyalty Program Structure on Consumers' Perceptions of Status
Drèze, X., & Nunes, J. C. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/593946 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
“According to a survey of the social comparison literature, we expect that consumers get a sense of precisely where they stand through their comparison to those directly above them (Collins 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Dispositional Envy
Smith, R. H., Parrott, W. G., Diener, E. F., Hoyle, R. H., & Kim, S. H. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672992511008 · Cited by 353 · see citing works
“Linking dispositional envy with specific reactions to upward social comparisons may help explain the considerable variability in how people have been shown to react to such comparisons (e.g., Collins, 1996).”
Background
Objective standards are not enough: Affective, self-evaluative, and behavioral responses to social comparison information.
Klein, W. M. P. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.72.4.763 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
A Reflection and Evaluation Model of Comparative Thinking
Markman, K. D., & McMullen, M. N. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0703_04 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
“…information indicating that they are dissimilar from the standard, then the accessibility of standard–inconsistent knowledge is increased such that self-evaluations are contrasted away from the standard (see also Brewer & Weber, 1994; Brown et al., 1992; Collins, 1996; Pelham & Wachsmuth, 1995).”
Background
Body dissatisfaction and body comparison with media images in males and females
van den Berg, P., Paxton, S. J., Keery, H., Wall, M. M., Guo, J., & Neumark‐Sztainer, D. (2007) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2007.04.003 · Cited by 331 · see citing works
“Comparison with same sex-media images would be upward comparisons for the majority of females, and might therefore be expected to lead to negative self-evaluation of the body (Collins, 1996).”
Background
Getting Ahead of the Joneses: When Equality Increases Conspicuous Consumption among Bottom-Tier Consumers
Ordabayeva, N., & Chandon, P. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/658165 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
“Although people engage in both upward (unfavorable) and downward (favorable) comparisons, upward comparisons occur faster (Wood 1989) and arise by default for self-evaluation purposes (Collins 1996).”
How can interventions increase motivation for physical activity? A systematic review and meta-analysis
Knittle, K. P., Nurmi, J., Crutzen, R., Hankonen, N. E., Beattie, M. M., & Dombrowski, S. U. (2018) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2018.1435299 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
“contradiction hints at the possibility that a mix of opportunities for both upward and downward comparisons may be ideal for increasing motivation (Collins, 1996), and indicates the need for closer examinations of how the quality and content of social support and social interactions impact on intervention effectivenes…”
Background
Developing the Professional Self-Concept: Role Model Construals in Early, Middle, and Late Career Stages
Gibson, D. E. (2003) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.14.5.591.16767 · Cited by 299 · see citing works
“When individuals are motivated to self-improve, learn a new role, acquire new skills, or set goals, they may select social referents who inhabit these desired roles or exhibit these desired qualities (Collins 1996).”
Background
Antecedents and consequences of the frequency of upward and downward social comparisons at work
Brown, D. J., Ferris, D. L., Heller, D. A., & Keeping, L. M. (2006) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2006.10.003 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
The Effects of a Female Role Model on Academic Performance and Persistence of Women in STEM Courses
Herrmann, S. D., Adelman, R. M., Bodford, J. E., Graudejus, O., Okun, M. A., & Kwan, V. S. Y. (2016) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2016.1209757 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
“Role models are important for motivational processes because they help to indicate particular goals and to suggest the path that one should follow to achieve those goals (Collins, 1996; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997).”
Background
Meta-analytic moderators of experimental exposure to media portrayals of women on female appearance satisfaction: Social comparisons as automatic processes
Want, S. C. (2009) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2009.07.008 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
“Posavac, Posavac, and Posavac (1998) have argued that some women may be more negatively affected by exposure to idealized media portrayals because their appearance differs more greatly from those ideal portrayals (social comparison theory suggests that the greater the difference between oneself and the comparison stan…”
Background
When Do Female Role Models Benefit Women? The Importance of Differentiating Recruitment From Retention in STEM
Drury, B. J., Siy, J. O., & Cheryan, S. (2011) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2011.620935 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
“Perceiving oneself to be similar to another person leads to an assimilation of self-views to the characteristics displayed by that person (Brown, Novick, Lord, & Richards, 1992; Collins, 1996; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Mussweiler, 2003).”
Background
The perils of outperformance: Sensitivity about being the target of a threatening upward comparison.
Exline, J. J., & Lobel, M. (1999) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.125.3.307 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
Zeroing in on heroes: A prototype analysis of hero features.
Kinsella, E. L., Ritchie, T. D., & Igou, E. R. (2015) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0038463 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Counterfactual Thinking: The Intersection of Affect and Function
Roese, N. J., & Olson, J. M. (1997) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60015-5 · Cited by 245 · see citing works
Understanding loyalty program effectiveness: managing target and bystander effects
Steinhoff, L., & Palmatier, R. W. (2014) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-014-0405-6 · Cited by 242 · see citing works
“The more people are ranked above oneself, the worse one feels (Collins 1996).”
Background
Portraits of the Self
Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2007) · SAGE Publications Ltd eBooks · doi:10.4135/9781848608221.n5 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Culture and Social Comparison Seeking: The Role of Self-Motives
White, K., & Lehman, D. R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271326 · Cited by 238 · see citing works
“, Brickman & Bulman, 1977), or by seeking out certain upward social comparisons (Collins, 1996).”
Background
Social comparison choices in the classroom: further evidence for students' upward comparison tendency and its beneficial impact on performance
Huguet, P., Dumas, F., Monteil, J. M., & Genestoux, N. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.81 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Clarifying the role of social comparison in the big-fish–little-pond effect (BFLPE): An integrative study.
Huguet, P., Dumas, F., Marsh, H. W., Régner, I., Wheeler, L. S., Suls, J. M., Seaton, M., & Nezlek, J. B. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015558 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
“, suggesting that students found their upward targets to be inspirational rather than threatening (Collins, 1996; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997, 1999).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Effects of Exposure to Thin Media Images: Evidence of Self-Enhancement among Restrained Eaters
Mills, J. S., Polivy, J., Herman, C. P., & Tiggemann, M. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/014616702237650 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
“Viewing a highly attractive model may have inspirational effects on an individual, resulting in a positive shift in self-perception (Collins, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
We Can Do It: The Interplay of Construal Orientation and Social Comparisons Under Threat.
Marx, D. M., Stapel, D. A., & Müller, D. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.88.3.432 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
“Assimilation Versus Contrast We use social comparisons to obtain self-knowledge by relating thoughts and behaviors to those around us (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954; Wood, 1989).”
Method
Shifting social identities as a strategy for deflecting threatening social comparisons.
Mussweiler, T., Gabriel, S., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.3.398 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“'Although in some situations upward comparisons may have "inspiring" properties (e.g., Collins, 1996; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Mussweiler & Strack, 2000), they nevertheless often threaten people's self-images.”
Background
Frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors: the dark side of social comparisons
White, J. B., Langer, E. J., Yariv, L., & Welch, J. C. (2006) · Journal of Adult Development · doi:10.1007/s10804-006-9005-0 · Cited by 207 · see citing works
“, 1985), to manage negative affect (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1993; Wood, Giordano-Beech, & Ducharme, 1999), for self-enhancement (Wood, Giordano-Beech, Taylor, Michela, & Gaus, 1994), or to affiliate upward (Collins, 1996).”
Background
Relative Leader–Member Exchange Within Team Contexts: How and when Social Comparison Impacts Individual Effectiveness
Hu, J. J., & Liden, R. C. (2012) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12008 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
‘Seek and ye shall find’: antecedents of assimilation and contrast in social comparison
Mussweiler, T. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.75 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Internal and External Frames of Reference for Academic Self-Concept
Skaalvik, E. M., & Skaalvik, S. (2002) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3704_3 · Cited by 187 · see citing works
“Several studies have supported the preference of upward comparisons (see review by Collins, 1996). In one study (Wheeler, 1966), participants completed a performance task and received false feedback with a list of other participants rank ordered by performance level. When permitted to view the score of one other parti…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Lay perspectives on the social and psychological functions of heroes
Kinsella, E. L., Ritchie, T. D., & Igou, E. R. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00130 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
I know you are, but what am I? Self-evaluative consequences of judging in-group and out-group members.
Mussweiler, T., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.19 · Cited by 183 · see citing works
The envious mind
Miceli, M., & Castelfranchi, C. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930600814735 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“Finally, upward comparison may even serve self-enhancement (e.g., Collins, 1996; Wheeler, 1966).”
Background
Harming high performers: A social comparison perspective on interpersonal harming in work teams.
Lam, C. K., Van der Vegt, G. S., Walter, F., & Huang, X. (2011) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0021882 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
New directions in social comparison research
Buunk, B. P., & Mussweiler, T. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.77 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Glowing Praise and the Envious Gaze: Social Dilemmas Surrounding the Public Recognition of Achievement
Exline, J. J., Single, P. B., Lobel, M., & Geyer, A. L. (2004) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15324834basp2602 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Among the Better Ones
Collins, R. L. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_9 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Social psychological theories of disordered eating in college women: Review and integration
Fitzsimmons‐Craft, E. E. (2011) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2011.07.011 · Cited by 172 · see citing works
The Effects of In-Group versus Out-Group Social Comparison on Self-Esteem in the Context of a Negative Stereotype
Blanton, H., Crocker, J., & Miller, D. T. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1425 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
“Although these results provide strong basis for our own predictions (see also Buunk & Ybema, 1997; Collins, 1996), the “group” in these studies was based on a shared minimal group assignment.”
Result
Differential social comparison processes in women with and without eating disorder symptoms.
Corning, A. F., Krumm, A. J., & Smitham, L. A. (2006) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0167.53.3.338 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Does Race Matter?
Frisby, C. M. (2004) · Journal of Black Studies · doi:10.1177/0021934703258989 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
“According to Collins (1996), upward comparisons with idealized images such as those found in most advertisements should negatively influence esteem when one feels inferior to the target.”
Background
Social comparison on Facebook: Its antecedents and psychological outcomes
Jang, K., Park, N., & Song, H. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2016.03.082 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
A study of Singapore adolescent girls’ selfie practices, peer appearance comparisons, and body esteem on Instagram
Chang, L., Li, P., Loh, R. S. M., & Chua, T. H. H. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Effects of users’ envy and shame on social comparison that occurs on social network services
Lim, M., & Yang, Y. K. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.013 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“The direction of comparison is often determined by a person’s objectives, which could either be self-enhancement or self-improvement (Collins, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
Background
Counterfactual thinking, persistence, and performance: A test of the Reflection and Evaluation Model
Markman, K. D., McMullen, M. N., & Elizaga, R. A. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.001 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
Status and solidarity in social comparison: Agentic and communal values and vertical and horizontal directions.
Locke, K. D. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.84.3.619 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
“One reason social comparison has been such a vital area of research is that comparisons affect so many important mediators of behavior— such as self-esteem, judgments of fairness, and outcome and efficacy expectancies—that are distinct from and transcend the relationship with any particular…”
When every day is a high school reunion: Social media comparisons and self-esteem.
Midgley, C., Thai, S., Lockwood, P., Kovacheff, C., & Page-Gould, E. (2021) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspi0000336 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
“In contrast, higher self-esteem individuals are generally adept at construing their own achievements as similar to those of superior others (Collins, 1996), resulting in either less extreme upward comparisons or fewer of them – and consequently less negative outcomes.”
Background
Holier than me? Threatening Social Comparison in the Moral Domain
Monin, B. (2007) · Cairn.info · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Emulation in Academia: Balancing Structure and Identity
Labianca, G., Fairbank, J. F., Thomas, J. B., Gioia, D. A., & Umphress, E. E. (2001) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.12.3.312.10101 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Mags and Abs: Media Consumption and Bodily Concerns in Men
Hatoum, I. J., & Belle, D. E. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000049229.93256.48 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“Social comparison processes, particularly the tendency to make upward social comparisons with those who have more beautiful and socially admired bodies, can lead to dissatisfaction and demoralization (Collins, 1996).”
Background
Experimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects on YouthPreprint
Kling, J. R., & Liebman, J. B. (2004) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.600596 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
“depression, anxiety, and/or delinquency (Wood, 1989; Marsh and Parker, 1984; Collins, 1996).”
Background
Dimensional comparisons: An experimental approach to the internal/external frame of reference model.
Møller, J., & Köller, O. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.826 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
A Selective History of Classic and Neo-Social Comparison Theory
Suls, J. M., & Wheeler, L. S. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_1 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Hot shots and cool reception? An expanded view of social consequences for high performers.
Campbell, E. M., Liao, H., Chuang, A., Zhou, J., & Dong, Y. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000183 · Cited by 155 · see citing works
Social Comparisons at Work as Related to a Cooperative Social Climate and to Individual Differences in Social Comparison Orientation
Buunk, B. P., Lloréns, R. Z., Silla, J. M. P., Nauta, A., & Gosalvez, I. (2005) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00196.x · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Abstract and concrete self-evaluative goals.
Freitas, A. L., Salovey, P., & Liberman, N. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.410 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Promoting Success or Preventing Failure: Cultural Differences in Motivation by Positive and Negative Role Models
Lockwood, P., Marshall, T. C., & Sadler, P. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271598 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
“Successful others can inspire individuals by exemplifying the success that one can achieve, providing a guide to achieving such success (cf. Buunk, Collins, Taylor, Van Yperen, & Dakof, 1990; Collins, 1996; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Taylor, Wayment, & Carillo, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
Background
The Importance of Role Models and Demographic Context for Senior Women's Work Identity Development
Sealy, R. H. V., & Singh, V. (2009) · International Journal of Management Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00262.x · Cited by 155 · see citing works
With a Little Help from My Friends (and Substitutes): Social Referents and Influence in Psychological Contract Fulfillment
Ho, V. T., & Levesque, L. L. (2005) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0121 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
“For example, they may engage in upward comparisons for the purpose of self-improvement or downward comparisons for the purpose of self-enhancement (Collins 1996, Wood 1989).”
Background
Extending Social Comparison: An Examination of the Unintended Consequences of Idealized Advertising Imagery
Gulas, C. S., & McKeage, K. (2000) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2000.10673606 · Cited by 148 · see citing works
Social comparison and coping with cancer treatment
van der Zee, K. I., Buunk, B. P., Sanderman, R., Botke, G., & van den Bergh, F. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00045-8 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
When Do Counterstereotypic Ingroup Members Inspire Versus Deflate? The Effect of Successful Professional Women on Young Women’s Leadership Self-Concept
Asgari, S., Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211431968 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“…2007), by modeling successful behaviors (Bandura, 1997), and by allowing observers to acquire skills and self-efficacy through vicarious learning (BarNir, Watson, & Hutchins, 2011), all of which enhance the motivation to succeed (Collins, 1996; Taylor, Wayment, & Carillo, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
Background
Self-esteem, self-affirmation, and schadenfreude.
DIJK, W. W. V., van Koningsbruggen, G. M., Ouwerkerk, J. W., & Wesseling, Y. M. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0026331 · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“In support of the view that misfortunes of others might satisfy this concern, it has been proposed that one possible route to a more positive self-view involves comparing one’s own lot to that of less fortunate others (e.g., Collins, 1996; Wills, 1981; Wood, 1989).”
Background
The dysfunctions of power in teams: A review and emergent conflict perspective
Greer, L., van Bunderen, L., & Yu, S. (2017) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2017.10.005 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
“…low power individuals do socially compare their power position with that of other members, which can result in painful upward social comparisons (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954; Rijs-man, 1983), that reminds them of all the bene ﬁ ts they lack and the vulnerable position they are in (Keltner et…”
Background
Focus of Comparison as a Determinant of Assimilation Versus Contrast in Social Comparison
Mussweiler, T. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201271004 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Female Leaders: Injurious or Inspiring Role Models for Women?
Hoyt, C. L., & Simon, S. (2011) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684310385216 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
“Upward social comparisons can be self-enhancing, particularly when these comparisons focus on similarities with the superior other (Collins, 1996, 2000).”
Background

Authors: Collins, R. L.
Affiliations: RAND Corporation (US)
Corresponding author: Collins, Rebecca L.
ORCID: Collins, Rebecca L.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-01
Volume: 119
Issue: 1
Pages: 51-69
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51
OpenAlex: W2165368401
Cited by: 1,166
References: 93
Citations by year: 2026: 53 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 95 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 28
FWCI: 20.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: upward social comparison, self-assessment, self-concept, social comparison theory

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For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations

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