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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“The typical response tendency known as self-enhancement, the general sensitivity to positive self-relevant information [48,49], might be a possible cause of decreased measurement accuracy.”
BackgroundLooking down: The influence of contempt and compassion on emergent leadership categorizations.
Melwani, S., Mueller, J. S., & Overbeck, J. R. (2012) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0030074 · Cited by 94
Infectious Disease and the Creation of Culture
Schaller, M., & Murray, D. R. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195380392.003.0003 · Cited by 97
“…Asians and Euro-Americans differ in visual perception, logical reasoning, self-concept, and many other fundamental aspects of psychological functioning (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999 ; Lehman, Chiu, & Schaller, 2004 ; Masuda & Nisbett, 2006 ; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ).”
The impact of individualist and collectivist group norms on evaluations of dissenting group members
Hornsey, M. J., Jetten, J., McAuliffe, B. J., & Hogg, M. A. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.01.006 · Cited by 93
Cultural Differences in Affective Forecasting: The Role of Focalism
Lam, K. C. H., Buehler, R., McFarland, C., Ross, M., & Cheung, I. K. M. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205274691 · Cited by 94
Positive, not negative, self‐compassion mediates the relationship between self‐esteem and well‐being
Pandey, R., Tiwari, G. K., Parihar, P., & Rai, P. K. (2019) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12259 · Cited by 99
“Thus, higher self-esteem is indicative of the comparative social standing, uniqueness, and an above-average position of an individual (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999).”
BackgroundForgotten but not gone: The recall and recognition of self-threatening memories
Green, J. D., Sedikides, C., & Gregg, A. P. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.10.006 · Cited by 96
Ang, R. P.-H., Klassen, R. M., Chong, W. H., Huan, V. S. L., Wong, I., Yeo, L. S., & Krawchuk, L. L. (2009) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2009.01.009 · Cited by 100
The Mediating Role of Parental Expectations in Culture and Well‐Being
Oishi, S., & Sullivan, H. W. (2005) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00349.x · Cited by 91
An Exchange Theory of Money and Self-Esteem in Decision Making
Zhang, L. (2009) · Review of General Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0014225 · Cited by 93
“There are still lively debates on whether people in both Western and Eastern cultures self-enhance (Heine, 2005; Heine et al., 1999; Sedikides, Gaertner, & Toguchi, 2003; Sedikides et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMojaverian, T., & Kim, H. S. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212465319 · Cited by 93
“While research has found that self-enhancement is relatively less central among collectivistic cultures (e.g., Heine et al., 1999), studies have found that self-esteem does play a role in well-being among Asians, especially in contexts where social relationships are also involved (Kwan, Bond, &…”
BackgroundResultCultural Identity and the Expression of Depression: A Social Identity Perspective
Chang, M. X., Jetten, J., Cruwys, T., & Haslam, C. (2016) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2291 · Cited by 105
Taylor, D. M., & Usborne, E. (2010) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/1363461510364569 · Cited by 99
Terrorism in two cultures: stress and growth following september 11 and the madrid train bombings
Steger∗, M. F., Frazier, P. A., & Zacchanini, J. L. (2008) · Journal of Loss and Trauma · doi:10.1080/15325020802173660 · Cited by 90
“Reports of growth may also be more common among individuals in independent cultures, who are more likely to strive to bolster positive self-views through self-enhancement (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999 ).”
BackgroundA data-driven classification of feelings
Thomson, D. M. H., & Crocker, C. (2012) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2012.09.002 · Cited by 95
Is self‐esteem a universal need? Evidence from The People's Republic of China
Cai, H., Wu, Q., & Brown, J. D. (2009) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2009.01278.x · Cited by 90
Unemori, P., Caruso, H. M., & Markus, H. R. (2004) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500444000100 · Cited by 89
“Recent studies indicate that Asian-Americans can employ both European-American and Asian selfways (Heine et al., 1999; Hong, Morris, Chiu, & Benet-Martinez, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationOn Pancultural Self-Enhancement
Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., & Chang, K. (2008) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022108318431 · Cited by 91
To Do or Not to Do: Using Positive and Negative Role Models to Harness Motivation
Lockwood, P., Sadler, P., Fyman, K., & Tuck, S. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.4.422.38297 · Cited by 88
Conner, A. L., Kitayama, S., Markus, H. R., & Suzuki, T. (2003) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022103256480 · Cited by 88
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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