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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“Although this pattern diverges from what might be expected from prior work on the East Asian tendency toward self-effacement (Heine et al., 1999), it is consistent with prior evidence that Asians generally report higher levels of hubristic pride than both Blacks and Whites (Orth et al.”
Culture, Self and Identity: Interactivist Contributions to a Metatheory for Cultural Psychology
Christopher, J. C., & Bickhard, M. H. (2007) · Culture & Psychology · doi:10.1177/1354067x07079881 · Cited by 71
Neurobiological Concomitants of Motivational States
Mendes, W. B., & Park, J. (2014) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2014.09.001 · Cited by 73
“positivity of the self that is detached from social others, compared to Asians who are strongly encouraged to fit in and abide by social expectations even in sacrifice of their own interest (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundSu, J. C., Lee, R. M., Park, I. J. K., Soto, J. A., Chang, J., Zamboanga, B. L., Kim, S. Y., Ham, L. S., Dezutter, J., Hurley, E. A., et al. (2014) · Asian American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0036116 · Cited by 76
Sznycer, D., & Lukaszewski, A. W. (2019) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2019.05.002 · Cited by 72
Cultural Factors That Impact Brand Personification Strategy Effectiveness
Aguirre‐Rodriguez, A. (2013) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20676 · Cited by 72
Ireson, J., & Rushforth, K. (2009) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671520903191170 · Cited by 67
“…norms and values may also affect the employment of tutors, especially the value placed on education, hard work and self-improvement, which are particularly evident in Asian cultures influenced by the Confucian tradition (Heine et al. 1999; Salili 1996; Stevenson and Stigler 1992; Wing On 1996).”
BackgroundMeasuring individual and cultural differences in implicit trait theories.
Church, A. T., Ortiz, F. A., Katigbak, M. S., Avdeyeva, T. V., Emerson, A. M., Flores, J. D. J. V., & Reyes, J. I. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.332 · Cited by 67
Developmental Trajectories of Personal and Collective Self-Concept Among American Indian Adolescents
Whitesell, N. R., Mitchell, C. M., Kaufman, C. E., Spicer, P., & the Voices of Indian Teens Project Team (2006) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00949.x · Cited by 67
CULTURE, SELF, AND SUBJECTIVE WELL-BEING: CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE PERSPECTIVES
Lu, L. (2008) · PSYCHOLOGIA · doi:10.2117/psysoc.2008.290 · Cited by 66
Audia, P. G., Brion, S., & Greve, H. R. (2015) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/s0742-332220150000032018 · Cited by 67
Duality of independence and interdependence: An adaptationist perspective
Hashimoto, H., & Yamagishi, T. (2016) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12145 · Cited by 71
Balcetis, E., Dunning, D. A., & Miller, R. L. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013195 · Cited by 67
Relational Self-construal Moderates the Link between Goal Coherence and Well-being
Gore, J. S., & Cross, S. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860802605861 · Cited by 61
“…longitudinal studies (Gore & Cross, 2006), and scores on the measure are less likely to display cross-cultural response sets as are common with measures of self-esteem and life satisfaction (Heine et al., 1999; see Gore et al., 2008, for utilization of this measure in a cross-cultural goal study).”
BackgroundO’Mara, E. M., Gaertner, L., Sedikides, C., Zhou, X., & Liu, Y. (2012) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2012.01.001 · Cited by 65
“Empirical support for the relativist perspective is provided, in part, by the (a) greater positive skew and mean level of explicit self-esteem in Western than Eastern cultures (Heine et al., 1999) and (b) apparently limited, if not lacking, self-favoring social comparisons among Easterners (Falk, Heine, Yuki, & Takemu…”
BackgroundResultSelf-conscious emotions as dynamic cultural processes
Mesquita, B., & Karasawa, M. (2004) · Lirias · Cited by 66
Cultural Differences in Judgment of Truthful and Deceptive Messages
Park, H. S., & Ahn, J. Y. (2007) · Western Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/10570310701672877 · Cited by 65
The Feeling of “Face” in Confucian Society: From a Perspective of Psychosocial Equilibrium
Han, K. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01055 · Cited by 66
“Why superiority and closeness are important is because Confucian society is very authority and relation oriented (Yang, 1991; Ho, 1993; Hwang, 2000).”
BackgroundPerceptions of Achievement and Achieving Peers in U.S. and Chinese Kindergartners
Jin, L., & Wang, Q. (2004) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9507.2004.00275.x · Cited by 66
The Association of Intimacy Goals and Marital Satisfaction: A Test of Four Mediational Hypotheses
Sanderson, C. A., & Cantor, N. L. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672012712001 · Cited by 65
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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