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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAcross the (Not So) Great Divide: Cultural Similarities in Self‐Evaluative Processes
Brown, J. D. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00267.x · Cited by 51
“In some cases, East Asians score below the scale midpoint, suggesting that their self-esteem is more negative than positive (Heine et al., 1999); in other cases, both cultural groups (i.e., Westerners and East Asians) score above the scale midpoint, suggesting that self-esteem is universally high…”
BackgroundGreer, L. L., & Dannals, J. E. (2017) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118909997.ch14 · Cited by 52
Culture and Psychology in the 21st Century
Kashima, Y. (2015) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022115599445 · Cited by 56
Kadous, K., Tayler, W. B., Thayer, J. M., & Young, D. (2014) · Journal of Behavioral Finance · doi:10.1080/15427560.2014.939748 · Cited by 51
“, self-esteem, self-affirmation, self-enhancing biases, self-evaluation maintenance; Heine et al. [1999]). These theories argue that when one’s image of oneself is threatened, psychological adaptations, generally defensive in nature, occur. Individuals take steps to dismiss, deny, or avoid threats; they seek approval…”
BackgroundInfluentialDouble Standards: The Role of Techniques of Neutralization
Bock, T. D., & Kenhove, P. V. (2010) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-010-0654-3 · Cited by 49
Friendships of Indonesian and United States youth
French, D. C., Pidada, S. U., & Victor, A. M. (2005) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/01650250544000080 · Cited by 52
Kim, D. H., Sung, Y., & Drumwright, M. E. (2016) · International Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/02650487.2016.1238661 · Cited by 49
“For example, individuals in a collectivistic culture tend to try to avoid behavior that might result in social disruptions or disappointing others (Heine et al. 1999).”
BackgroundLou, N. M., Masuda, T., & Li, L. M. W. (2017) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2017.08.007 · Cited by 52
Self‐reassurance, not self‐esteem, serves as a buffer between self‐criticism and depressive symptoms
Petrocchi, N., Dentale, F., & Gilbert, P. (2018) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12186 · Cited by 56
Aruta, J. J. B., Antazo, B., & Paceño, J. L. (2021) · The Journal of psychology · doi:10.1080/00223980.2021.1876620 · Cited by 48
“…proposed that self-criticism may serve an adaptive function in interdependent cultures because it allows people to reflect on their shortcomings and adjust themselves in accordance with the unwritten social rules and expectations (Heine, 2003; Heine et al., 1999; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).”
BackgroundSelf-Enhancement and Self-Stability Predict School Achievement at the National Level
Minkov, M. (2008) · Cross-Cultural Research · doi:10.1177/1069397107312956 · Cited by 48
Culture and Teasing: The Relational Benefits of Reduced Desire for Positive Self-Differentiation
Campos, B., Keltner, D. J., Beck, J., Gonzaga, G. C., & John, O. P. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206293788 · Cited by 49
Du, H., Li, X., Lin, D., & Tam, C. C. (2015) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-014-9785-9 · Cited by 48
“In addition, East Asians tend to be more self-criticizing (Heine et al. 1999) and consider a high level of self-efficacy and self-competence as a barrier to build social relationships (Tafarodi et al. 1999).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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