Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions.

West, Richard F.; Toplak, Maggie E.; Stanovich, Keith E.

doi:10.1037/a0012842

Cited by 416Education and Critical Thinking DevelopmentDecision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsEducational Strategies and Epistemologies

Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions.

West, Richard F., Toplak, Maggie E., Stanovich, Keith E.·2008·Journal of Educational Psychology

DOI 10.1037/a0012842

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

In this article, the authors argue that there are a range of effects usually studied within cognitive psychology that are legitimately thought of as aspects of critical thinking: the cognitive biases studied in the heuristics and biases literature. In a study of 793 student participants, the authors found that the ability to avoid these biases was moderately correlated with a more traditional laboratory measure of critical thinking—the ability to reason logically when logic conflicts with prior belief. The correlation between these two classes of critical thinking skills was not due to a joint connection with general cognitive ability because it remained statistically significant after the variance due to cognitive ability was partialed out. Measures of thinking dispositions (actively open-minded thinking and need for cognition) predicted unique variance in both classes of critical thinking skills after general cognitive ability had been controlled.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/a0012842

Cites

131 of 131 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

This paper’s full text isn’t openly available, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

There is reliable variance in rational thinking independent of intelligence.
“That there is reliable variance in rational thinking independent of intelligence has been suggested before (Stanovich & West, 1998c, 2008b;West et al., 2008), but the properties of this intelligence-partialed variance are largely unexplored.”
From The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks (2011) · cites this paper as West et al., 2008
The mobilization of cognitive resources such as those involved in critical reasoning on logical bases usually makes it possible to overcome cognitive biases and adjust one's reasoning.
“Though some cognitive biases can even be seen as normal ways of thinking and feeling, sometimes shaping human beliefs and ideologies in ways that make it completely normal—and even definitely human—not to be objective (see Thornhill-Miller and Millican 2015), the mobilization of cognitive resources such as those involved in critical reasoning on logical bases usually makes it possible to overcome”
From Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education (2023) · cites this paper as West et al. 2008

Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1975) · Utility, Probability, and Human Decision Making · doi:10.1007/978-94-010-1834-0_8 · Cited by 22,650 · see citing works
The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1981) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7455683 · Cited by 17,604 · cited 1× · see citing works
“The much-researched disease framing problem was originally studied by Tversky and Kahneman (1981).”
On the psychology of prediction.
Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. (1973) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0034747 · Cited by 6,202 · see citing works
A perspective on judgment and choice: mapping bounded rationality.
Kahneman, D. (2003) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.58.9.697 · Cited by 5,540 · see citing works
Choices, Values, and Frames
Kahneman, D. J., & Tversky, A. (2013) · World Scientific handbook in financial economic series · doi:10.1142/9789814417358_0016 · Cited by 5,372 · see citing works
Individual differences in reasoning: Implications for the rationality debate?
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2000) · Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1017/s0140525x00003435 · Cited by 4,255 · see citing works
Self-citation
Extensional versus intuitive reasoning: The conjunction fallacy in probability judgment.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1983) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.90.4.293 · Cited by 3,991 · see citing works
Untitled work
(1982) · Cited by 3,737 · see citing works
RATIONAL CHOICE AND THE FRAMING OF DECISIONS
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1988) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511598951.011 · Cited by 3,714 · see citing works
Rational Choice and the Framing of Decisions
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1986) · The Journal of Business · doi:10.1086/296365 · Cited by 3,638 · see citing works
Heuristics and Biases: The Psychology of Intuitive Judgment
Bottom, W. P., Gilovich, T. D., Griffin, D., & Kahneman, D. J. (2004) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.2307/20159081 · Cited by 3,579 · see citing works
Dispositional differences in cognitive motivation: The life and times of individuals varying in need for cognition.
Cacioppo, J. T., Petty, R. E., Feinstein, J. A., & Jarvis, W. B. G. (1996) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.197 · Cited by 2,517 · cited 4× · see citing works
“The split-half reliability (Spearman–Brown corrected) of the Need for Cognition Scale was .81, and Cronbach’s alpha was .88.”
Influential
Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts
Facione, P. A. (2011) · Cited by 2,252 · see citing works
Effects of beliefs about the nature of knowledge on comprehension.
Schommer, M. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.3.498 · Cited by 2,215 · see citing works
The construction of preference.
Slovic, P. (1995) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.50.5.364 · Cited by 2,100 · see citing works
Intellectual Evolution from Adolescence to Adulthood
Piaget, J. (2009) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000271225 · Cited by 1,891 · see citing works
On the reality of cognitive illusions.
Kahneman, D. J., & Tversky, A. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.582 · Cited by 1,452 · see citing works
Thinking and Deciding
Baron, J. A. (2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009263672 · Cited by 1,434 · see citing works
The nature of individual differences in working memory capacity: Active maintenance in primary memory and controlled search from secondary memory.
Unsworth, N., & Engle, R. W. (2007) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.114.1.104 · Cited by 1,307 · see citing works
Rational choice in an uncertain world
Dawes, R. M., & Kagan, J. (1988) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,293 · see citing works
The relation of rational and experiential information processing styles to personality, basic beliefs, and the ratio-bias phenomenon.
Pacini, R., & Epstein, S. J. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.6.972 · Cited by 1,258 · see citing works
The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-2391-4_2 · Cited by 1,252 · see citing works
Risk and Rationality in Adolescent Decision Making: Implications for Theory, Practice, and Public Policy
Reyna, V. F., & Farley, F. (2006) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1111/j.1529-1006.2006.00026.x · Cited by 1,244 · cited 1× · see citing works
“…real-world decisions in domains such as personal finance, employment, health, and public policy (Baron, Bazerman, & Shonk, 2006; Hastie & Dawes, 2001; Hilton, 2003; Kahneman & Tversky, 2000; Lichtenstein & Slovic, 2006; Myers, 2002; Reyna & Farley, 2006; Reyna & Lloyd, 2006; Sunstein, 2002, 2005).”
New Horizons in Psychology 1
Foss, B. (1966) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,157 · see citing works
The Validity of Self-Reported Grade Point Averages, Class Ranks, and Test Scores: A Meta-Analysis and Review of the Literature
Kuncel, N. R., Credé, M., & Thomas, L. L. (2005) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543075001063 · Cited by 1,137 · see citing works
A taxonomy of critical thinking dispositions and abilities.
Ennis, R. H. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,115 · see citing works
Who Is Rational?: Studies of individual Differences in Reasoning
Stanovich, K. E. (1999) · Cited by 1,114 · see citing works
Self-citation
Rationality and reasoning
(1997) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.34-5974 · Cited by 1,076 · see citing works
Bias in Human Reasoning: Causes and Consequences
Evans, J. S. B. T. (1990) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 1,033 · see citing works
Human reasoning: the psychology of deduction
(1994) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.31-4073 · Cited by 990 · see citing works
Blackwell Handbook of Judgment and Decision Making
(2004) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470752937 · Cited by 981 · see citing works
Individual differences in adult decision-making competence.
Bruine de Bruin, W., Parker, A. M., & Fischhoff, B. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.938 · Cited by 906 · see citing works
Teaching Thinking Skills: Theory and Practice
Baron, J. B., & Sternberg, R. J. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 904 · see citing works
Individual differences in rational thought.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1998) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.127.2.161 · Cited by 875 · see citing works
Self-citation
Educating reason: rationality, critical thinking, and education
(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.27-1051 · Cited by 853 · see citing works
On the conflict between logic and belief in syllogistic reasoning
Evans, J. S. B. T., Barston, J. L., & Pollard, P. (1983) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196976 · Cited by 841 · see citing works
On the relative independence of thinking biases and cognitive ability
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.672 · Cited by 840 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Construction of Preference
(2006) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511618031 · Cited by 821 · see citing works
Judgment under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1973) · doi:10.21236/ad0767426 · Cited by 781 · see citing works
Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized
Sternberg, R. J. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511509612 · Cited by 770 · see citing works
Progress in social psychology
Fishbein, M. (1980) · Lawrence Erlbaum Associates eBooks · Cited by 760 · see citing works
Interpretation by Physicians of Clinical Laboratory Results
Casscells, W., Schoenberger, A., & Graboys, T. B. (1978) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm197811022991808 · Cited by 759 · see citing works
Reasoning independently of prior belief and individual differences in actively open-minded thinking.
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1997) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.89.2.342 · Cited by 735 · see citing works
Self-citation
Informal Reasoning and Education
(2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052228 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
The heuristic-analytic theory of reasoning: Extension and evaluation
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2006) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03193858 · Cited by 644 · see citing works
How People Make Decisions That Involve Risk
Reyna, V. F. (2004) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0963-7214.2004.00275.x · Cited by 639 · see citing works
Conflict between intuitive and rational processing: When people behave against their better judgment.
Denes-Raj, V., & Epstein, S. J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.66.5.819 · Cited by 620 · see citing works
Causal schemas in judgments under uncertainty
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. J. (1982) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511809477.009 · Cited by 605 · see citing works
The effects of statistical training on thinking about everyday problems
Fong, G. T., Krantz, D. H., & Nisbett, R. E. (1986) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1016/0010-0285(86)90001-0 · Cited by 597 · see citing works
Conflict between intuitive and rational processing: When people behave against their better judgment.
Denes-Raj, V., & Epstein, S. J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.66.5.819 · Cited by 593 · see citing works
Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized
Sternberg, R. J. (2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.41-5593 · Cited by 589 · see citing works
Scholastic Assessment or g?: The Relationship Between the Scholastic Assessment Test and General Cognitive Ability
Frey, M. C., & Detterman, D. K. (2004) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.0956-7976.2004.00687.x · Cited by 585 · see citing works
What intelligence tests miss: the psychology of rational thought
(2009) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.46-5908 · Cited by 542 · see citing works
Dual Processing in Reasoning
Neys, W. D. (2006) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01723.x · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Distinguishing the reflective, algorithmic, and autonomous minds: Is it time for a tri-process theory?
Stanovich, K. E. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230167.003.0003 · Cited by 532 · see citing works
Self-citation
Intuitive theories of events and the effects of base-rate information on prediction
Ajzen, I. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.5.303 · Cited by 503 · see citing works
Numeracy, Ratio Bias, and Denominator Neglect in Judgments of Risk and Probability
Reyna, V. F., & Brainerd, C. J. (2008) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.03.011 · Cited by 481 · see citing works
The Robot's Rebellion: Finding Meaning in the Age of Darwin
Stanovich, K. (2004) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.42-2149 · Cited by 480 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evaluating Critical Thinking
Norris, S. P., & Ennis, R. H. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 451 · see citing works
Decision‐making competence: External validation through an individual‐differences approach
Parker, A. M., & Fischhoff, B. (2005) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.481 · Cited by 444 · see citing works
Without good reason: the rationality debate in philosophy and cognitive science
Stein, E. (1996) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-6237 · Cited by 443 · see citing works
Why Schools Should Teach for Wisdom: The Balance Theory of Wisdom in Educational Settings
Sternberg, R. J. (2001) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1207/s15326985ep3604_2 · Cited by 432 · see citing works
Risk and reason: safety, law,and the environment
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-4737 · Cited by 425 · see citing works
Rapid responding increases belief bias: Evidence for the dual-process theory of reasoning
Evans, J. S. B. T., & Curtis-Holmes, J. (2005) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780542000005 · Cited by 418 · see citing works
Thinking and reasoning
Garnham, A. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203704394-4 · Cited by 399 · see citing works
In two minds: Dual processes and beyond.
Evans, J., & Frankish, K. (2009) · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199230167.001.0001 · Cited by 395 · see citing works
Intuition: its powers and perils
(2003) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.40-3090 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Effects of preexisiting beliefs, epistemological beliefs, and need for cognition on interpretation of controversial issues.
Kardash, C. M., & Scholes, R. J. (1996) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.2.260 · Cited by 377 · see citing works
Outsmarting IQ: the emerging science of learnable intelligence
(1995) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.33-2424 · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Natural myside bias is independent of cognitive ability
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (2007) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780600780796 · Cited by 356 · see citing works
Self-citation
Emerging Perspectives on Judgment and Decision Research
Schneider, S. L., & Shanteau, J. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511609978 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
The effects of graduate training on reasoning: Formal discipline and thinking about everyday-life events.
Lehman, D. R., Lempert, R. O., & Nisbett, R. E. (1988) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.43.6.431 · Cited by 341 · see citing works
Cognitive-experiential self-theory and subjective probability: Further evidence for two conceptual systems.
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Epstein, S. J. (1992) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.63.4.534 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
The Robot's Rebellion: Finding Meaning in the Age of Darwin
Stanovich, K. E. (2004) · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Self-citation
The domain specificity and generality of belief bias: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill.
Sá, W. C., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (1999) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.91.3.497 · Cited by 311 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Oxford Handbook of Rationality
Rawling, P., & Mele, A. R. (2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195145397.001.0001 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
On belief bias in syllogistic reasoning.
Klauer, K. C., Musch, J., & Naumer, B. (2000) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.107.4.852 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Heuristic and analytic processing: Age trends and associations with cognitive ability and cognitive styles
Kokis, J. V., Macpherson, R., Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-0965(02)00121-2 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Self-citation
Physician decision making and cardiac risk: Effects of knowledge, risk perception, risk tolerance, and fuzzy processing.
Reyna, V. F., & Lloyd, F. J. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/1076-898x.12.3.179 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Frequency illusions and other fallacies
Sloman, S. A., Over, D. E., Slovak, L., & Stibel, J. M. (2003) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/s0749-5978(03)00021-9 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Education for Thinking
Kuhn, D. (1986) · Teachers College Record · doi:10.1177/016146818608700404 · Cited by 256 · see citing works
Everyday Reasoning and the Roots of Intelligence
Perkins, D. N., Farady, M., & Bushey, B. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052228-9 · Cited by 247 · see citing works
Rationality Redeemed?: Further Dialogues on an Educational Ideal
Siegel, H. (1996) · Cited by 242 · see citing works
Hypothetical Thinking: Dual Processes in Reasoning and Judgement
Evans, J. S. B. T. (2007) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Rational choice in an uncertain world
Mellers, B. A. (1990) · Journal of Mathematical Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-2496(90)90036-9 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Analytic and Heuristic Processing Influences on Adolescent Reasoning and Decision-Making
Klaczynski, P. A. (2001) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/1467-8624.00319 · Cited by 230 · see citing works
Making believers out of computers
Levesque, H. J. (1986) · Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1016/0004-3702(86)90068-8 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Adolescent Psychological Development: Rationality, Morality, and Identity
Moshman, D. (1999) · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Discrepancies Between Normative and Descriptive Models of Decision Making and the Understanding/Acceptance Principle
Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1999) · Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1006/cogp.1998.0700 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Self-citation
The belief-bias effect in the production and evaluation of logical conclusions
Markovits, H., & Nantel, G. (1989) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03199552 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Thinking and deciding, 3rd ed.
Baron, J. A. (2000) · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Intellectual Evolution from Adolescence to Adulthood
Piaget, J. (2008) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000112531 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, and instructional set as predictors of critical thinking
Macpherson, R., & Stanovich, K. E. (2007) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2007.05.003 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Self-citation
Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal ®
Glaser, E. M. (2008) · Cited by 188 · see citing works
Memory, Development, and Rationality: An Integrative Theory of Judgment and Decision Making
Reyna, V. F., Lloyd, F. J., & Brainerd, C. J. (2003) · Emerging Perspectives on Judgment and Decision Research · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511609978.009 · Cited by 186 · cited 2× · see citing works
“The rational thinking tendencies measured by these heuristics and biases tasks are probably multifarious (Parker & Fischhoff, 2005; Reyna et al., 2003; Stanovich 2008a, 2008b; Toplak, Liu, Macpherson, Toneatto, & Stanovich, 2007).”
Prefrontal cognitive ability, intelligence, Big Five personality, and the prediction of advanced academic and workplace performance.
Higgins, D. M., Peterson, J. B., Pihl, R. O., & Lee, A. G. M. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.2.298 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Insights in decision making : a tribute to Hillel J. Einhorn
Einhorn, H. J., & Hogarth, R. M. (1990) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · Cited by 177 · see citing works
The Psychology of Economic Decisions
Brocas, I., & Carrillo, J. D. (2003) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199251063.001.0001 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
A Psychological Perspective
Green, C., & Tunstall, S. M. (2001) · doi:10.1093/0199248915.003.0008 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Logic and the Complexity of Reasoning
Levesque, H. J. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2448-2_4 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Self-Reported GPA and SAT: A Methodological Note
Cassady, J. C. (2020) · Scholarworks (University of Massachusetts Amherst) · doi:10.7275/5hym-y754 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Diagnosticity and pseudodiagnosticity.
Marom, T., & Fischhoff, B. (1983) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.45.6.1185 · Cited by 150 · see citing works
The Development of Rational Thought: A Taxonomy of Heuristics and Biases
Stanovich, K. E., Toplak, M. E., & West, R. F. (2008) · Advances in child development and behavior · doi:10.1016/s0065-2407(08)00006-2 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Self-citation
Personal theories, intellectual ability, and epistemological beliefs: Adult age differences in everyday reasoning biases.
Klaczynski, P. A., & Robinson, B. (2000) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.15.3.400 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Class inclusion, the conjunction fallacy, and other cognitive illusions
Reyna, V. F. (1991) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/0273-2297(91)90017-i · Cited by 116 · see citing works
The domain specificity and generality of disjunctive reasoning: Searching for a generalizable critical thinking skill.
Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (2002) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.94.1.197 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citation
Journal of business
Fildes, R. A. (1988) · International Journal of Forecasting · doi:10.1016/0169-2070(88)90123-9 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
The Incidental Acquisition of Information from Reading
West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00160.x · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citation
The reasoning skills and thinking dispositions of problem gamblers: a dual‐process taxonomy
Toplak, M. E., Liu, E., Macpherson, R., Toneatto, T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2007) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.544 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citation
Domain-specific identity, epistemic regulation, and intellectual ability as predictors of belief-biased reasoning: A dual-process perspective
Klaczynski, P. A., & Lavallee, K. L. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.05.001 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Logic and the complexity of reasoning
Levesque, H. J. (1988) · Journal of Philosophical Logic · doi:10.1007/bf00297511 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
: From inference to reasoning: The construction of rationality
Moshman, D. (2004) · Thinking & Reasoning · doi:10.1080/13546780442000024 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Rationality and the Normative/Descriptive Distinction
Over, D. E. (2004) · doi:10.1002/9780470752937.ch1 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Beliefs about Thinking
Baron, J. (2012) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203052228-14 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Bias in adolescents' everyday reasoning and its relationship with intellectual ability, personal theories, and self-serving motivation.
Klaczynski, P. A. (1997) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.33.2.273 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Self-Serving Influences on Adolescents’ Evaluations of Belief-Relevant Evidence
Klaczynski, P. A., & Gordon, D. (1996) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1006/jecp.1996.0033 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Cognition and Chance: The Psychology of Probabilistic Reasoning
Nickerson, R. S. (2004) · Cited by 70 · see citing works
The Nature of Reasoning
Leighton, J. P., & Sternberg, R. J. (2003) · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Back to base rates.
Bar‐Hillel, M. (1990) · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Enlarging the Societal Pie Through Wise Legislation: A Psychological Perspective
Baron, J., Bazerman, M. H., & Shonk, K. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00009.x · Cited by 52 · see citing works
Rationality and Psychology
Samuels, R., & Stich, S. P. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195145397.003.0015 · Cited by 50 · see citing works
Philosophical Logic and Artificial Intelligence
Thomason, R. H. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-94-009-2448-2_1 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Psychology and the Financial Markets: Applications to Understanding and Remedying Irrational Decision-Making
Hilton, D. (2003) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780199251063.003.0014 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Relation of Conditional Reasoning to Heuristic Processing
Slugoski, B. R., Shields, H. A., & Dawson, K. A. (1993) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167293192004 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
RATIONALITY AND PSYCHOLOGY
Samuels, R. J., & Stich, S. G. W. (2004) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/0195145399.003.0015 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
The Role of Prior Belief in Reasoning
Evans, J. S. B. T., & Feeney, A. (2003) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511818714.004 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Rationality and well-being
Brocas, I., & Carrillo, J. D. (2003) · Oxford University Press eBooks · Cited by 18 · see citing works
The Development of Rationality
Moshman, D. (2010) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195312881.003.0009 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Accounting for Belief Bias in a Mental Model Framework: Comment on Klauer, Musch, and Naumer (2000).
Garnham, A., & Oakhill, J. V. (2005) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.112.2.509 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bias in adolescents' everyday reasoning and its relationship with intellectual ability, personal theories, and self-serving motivation.
Klaczynski, P. A. (1997) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037//0012-1649.33.2.273 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Cognition and Chance: The Psychology of Probabilistic Reasoning
Fricker, R. D. (2005) · Technometrics · doi:10.1198/tech.2005.s295 · Cited by 7 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Dual-Process Theories of Higher Cognition: Advancing the Debate
Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691612460685 · Cited by 4,271 · see citing works
Self-citation
The Cognitive Reflection Test as a predictor of performance on heuristics-and-biases tasks
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0104-1 · Cited by 1,047 · see citing works
Self-citation
Creativity, Critical Thinking, Communication, and Collaboration: Assessment, Certification, and Promotion of 21st Century Skills for the Future of Work and Education
Thornhill-Miller, B., Camarda, A., Mercier, M., Burkhardt, J.-M., Morisseau, T., Bourgeois-Bougrine, S., Vinchon, F., El Hayek, S., Augereau-Landais, M., Mourey, F., et al. (2023) · Journal of Intelligence · doi:10.3390/jintelligence11030054 · Cited by 768 · see citing works
Analytic thinking reduces belief in conspiracy theories
Swami, V., Voracek, M., Stieger, S., Tran, U. S., & Furnham, A. (2014) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2014.08.006 · Cited by 726 · see citing works
Investment and intellect: A review and meta-analysis.
von Stumm, S., & Ackerman, P. L. (2013) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0030746 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Determinants of 21st-century digital skills: A large-scale survey among working professionals
van Laar, E., van Deursen, A. J. A. M., van Dijk, J. A. G. M., & de Haan, J. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.06.017 · Cited by 379 · see citing works
Rational thinking and cognitive sophistication: Development, cognitive abilities, and thinking dispositions.
Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2014) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0034910 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
Self-citation
Evolution and Children’s Cognitive and Academic Development
Geary, D. C., & Berch, D. B. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29986-0_9 · Cited by 101 · see citing works

Authors: West, R. F., Toplak, M. E., & Stanovich, K. E.
Affiliations: James Madison University (US)
York University (CA)
University of Toronto (CA)
ORCID: Toplak, Maggie E.
Stanovich, Keith E.
Venue: Journal of Educational Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2008-11
Volume: 100
Issue: 4
Pages: 930-941
ISSN: 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
1939-2176
DOI: 10.1037/a0012842
OpenAlex: W1975783365
Cited by: 416
References: 131
Citations by year: 2026: 9 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 27 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 25 · 2021: 38 · 2020: 39 · 2019: 36 · 2018: 26 · 2017: 23 · 2016: 25 · 2015: 20 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 18 · 2012: 16
FWCI: 43.43
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion)
Funders: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada
Canada Research Chairs program
Topics: Social Sciences › Education › Education and Critical Thinking Development
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational Strategies and Epistemologies
Keywords: heuristics and biases, cognitive biases, critical thinking, cognitive ability, thinking dispositions, open-mindedness, need for cognition, logical reasoning, prior beliefs

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Heuristics and biases as measures of critical thinking: Associations with cognitive ability and thinking dispositions.

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Related

Record

About these checks