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Cited by 134Mindfulness and Compassion InterventionsSleep and related disordersMind wandering and attention

Awakening is not a metaphor: the effects of Buddhist meditation practices on basic wakefulness

Open access
Britton, Willoughby B., Lindahl, Jared R., Cahn, B. Rael, Davis, Jake H., Goldman, Roberta E.·2014·Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
DOI 10.1111/nyas.12279PMC PMC4054695
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Abstract

Buddhist meditation practices have become a topic of widespread interest in both science and medicine. Traditional Buddhist formulations describe meditation as a state of relaxed alertness that must guard against both excessive hyperarousal (restlessness) and excessive hypoarousal (drowsiness, sleep). Modern applications of meditation have emphasized the hypoarousing and relaxing effects without as much emphasis on the arousing or alertness‐promoting effects. In an attempt to counterbalance the plethora of data demonstrating the relaxing and hypoarousing effects of Buddhist meditation, this interdisciplinary review aims to provide evidence of meditation's arousing or wake‐promoting effects by drawing both from Buddhist textual sources and from scientific studies, including subjective, behavioral, and neuroimaging studies during wakefulness, meditation, and sleep. Factors that may influence whether meditation increases or decreases arousal are discussed, with particular emphasis on dose, expertise, and contemplative trajectory. The course of meditative progress suggests a nonlinear multiphasic trajectory, such that early phases that are more effortful may produce more fatigue and sleep propensity, while later stages produce greater wakefulness as a result of neuroplastic changes and more efficient processing.

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Crossref · 10.1111/nyas.12279

Cites

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingcitation

    A number of studies found meditation-related activation or volume increases lateralized to the right hemisphere and corresponding to tonic alertness-related brain areas.

    “A number of studies have found that meditation-related activation or volume increases are lateralized to the right hemisphere and correspond to tonic alertness–related brain areas (lateral PFC, inferior parietal, and anterior insula).65–70”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [65] Hasenkamp W Wilson-Mendenhall CD Duncan E 2012 Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: a fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states Neuroimage 59 750 60 21782031 source

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    • cites [66] Lazar SW Kerr CE Wasserman RH 2005 Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness Neuroreport 16 1893 7 16272874 PMC1361002 source

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    • cites [67] Farb NA Segal ZV Mayberg H 2007 Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2 313 322 18985137 PMC2566754 source

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    • cites [68] Lutz A Brefczynski-Lewis J Johnstone T 2008 Regulation of the neural circuitry of emotion by compassion meditation: effects of meditative expertise PloS one 3 e1897 18365029 PMC2267490 source

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    • cites [69] Sato JR Kozasa EH Russell TA 2012 Brain imaging analysis can identify participants under regular mental training PloS one 7 e39832 22802944 PMC3389014 source

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    • cites [70] Zeidan F Martucci KT Kraft RA 2011 Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation J Neurosci 31 5540 8 21471390 PMC3090218 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Converging evidence suggests meditation training may be associated with decreased default mode network activity.

    “Converging evidence suggests that meditation training may be associated with decreased DMN activity,67, 70, 87, 94, 97–99”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [67] Farb NA Segal ZV Mayberg H 2007 Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2 313 322 18985137 PMC2566754 source

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    • cites [70] Zeidan F Martucci KT Kraft RA 2011 Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation J Neurosci 31 5540 8 21471390 PMC3090218 source

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    • cites [87] Farb NA Anderson AK Mayberg H 2010 Minding one’s emotions: mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness Emotion 10 25 33 20141299 PMC5017873 source

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    • cites [94] Taylor VA Grant J Daneault V 2011 Impact of mindfulness on the neural responses to emotional pictures in experienced and beginner meditators Neuroimage 57 1524 33 21679770 source

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    • cites [97] Berkovich-Ohana A Glicksohn J Goldstein A 2011 Mindfulness-induced changes in gamma band activity - Implications for the default mode network, self-reference and attention Clinical Neurophysiology 21940201 source

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    • cites [98] Travis F Haaga DA Hagelin J 2010 A self-referential default brain state: patterns of coherence, power, and eLORETA sources during eyes-closed rest and Transcendental Meditation practice Cognitive processing 11 21 30 19862565 source

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    • cites [99] Brewer JA Worhunsky PD Gray JR 2011 Meditation experience is associated with differences in default mode network activity and connectivity Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108 20254 9 22114193 PMC3250176 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Studies have found increased activation or gray matter density in tonic alertness-related areas in meditators, including the thalamus, basal ganglia, and arousal-related brainstem areas such as the reticular formation.

    “Studies of subcortical structures have found increased activation or gray matter density in tonic alertness–related areas in meditators, such as the thalamus,83,87,88 basal ganglia,48,88,109,110 and arousal-related areas of the brainstem, such as the reticular formation.111”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 7 sources checked
    • cites [83] Luders E Toga A Lepore N 2009 The underlying anatomical correlates of long-term meditation: Larger frontal and hippocampal volumes of gray matter Neuroimage 45 672 678 19280691 PMC3184843 source

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    • cites [87] Farb NA Anderson AK Mayberg H 2010 Minding one’s emotions: mindfulness training alters the neural expression of sadness Emotion 10 25 33 20141299 PMC5017873 source

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    • cites [88] Grant JA Courtemanche J Rainville P 2011 A non-elaborative mental stance and decoupling of executive and pain-related cortices predicts low pain sensitivity in Zen meditators Pain 152 150 6 21055874 source

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    • cites [48] Pagnoni G Cekic M 2007 Age effects on gray matter volume and attentional performance in Zen meditation Neurobiology of Aging 28 1623 7 17655980 source

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    • cites [109] Baerentsen KB 2001 Onset of meditation explored with fMRI Neuroimage 13 S297 source

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    • cites [110] Baerentsen KB Stodkilde-Jorgensen H Sommerlund B 2009 An investigation of brain processes supporting meditation Cogn Process 19876663 source

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    • cites [111] Vestergaard-Poulsen P van Beek M Skewes J 2009 Long-term meditation is associated with increased gray matter density in the brain stem Neuroreport 20 170 4 19104459 source

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  • Findingcitation

    Kaul et al. found meditation-naive university students who performed a 40-min focused attention meditation improved their performance on the psychomotor vigilance task compared to a nap or control activity.

    “Kaul et al.55 found that meditation naive university students who performed a 40-min FA mediation improved their performance on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) in comparison to a nap or a control activity.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Kaul P Passafiume J Sargent C 2010 Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need Behavioral and brain Functions 6 47 56 20670413 PMC2919439 source

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  • Findingnone given

    More than 25 neuroimaging studies have found that Buddhist meditation practices are associated with activation or enlargement of areas underlying tonic alertness and/or preventing sleep, both during meditation and at rest or during tasks.

    “Although there is much variability in the methodologies, practice, and sample characteristics, more than 25 neuroimaging studies have found that Buddhist meditation practices are associated with activation/enlargement of the areas that underlie tonic alertness and/or prevent sleep both during meditation (state) and at rest or during tasks (trait).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 18
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 5

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    Findingcitation

    Buddhist meditation practices are associated with increased DLPFC activity during meditation and during tasks, and with larger frontal gray matter volumes.

    “Buddhist meditation practices have been found to be associated with increased activity in the DLPFC, both during meditation45,65,76–79 and during tasks,67,70,80,81 as well as larger frontal gray matter volumes.66,82,83”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [45] Brefczynski-Lewis JA Lutz A Schaefer HS 2007 Neural correlates of attentional expertise in long-term meditation practitioners Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104 11483 8 17596341 PMC1903340 source

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    • cites [65] Hasenkamp W Wilson-Mendenhall CD Duncan E 2012 Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: a fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states Neuroimage 59 750 60 21782031 source

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    • cites [76] Manna A Raffone A Perrucci MG 2010 Neural correlates of focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditation Brain Res Bull 82 46 56 20223285 source

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    • cites [77] Yu X Fumoto M Nakatani Y 2011 Activation of the anterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associated with improvements in mood and EEG changes induced by Zen meditation practice in novices International Journal of Psychophysiology 80 103 111 21333699 source

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    • cites [78] Baron Short E Kose S Mu Q 2010 Regional brain activation during meditation shows time and practice effects: an exploratory FMRI study Evidence-based complementary and alternative medicine: eCAM 7 121 7 18955268 PMC2816391 source

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    • cites [79] Ritskes R Ritskes-Hoitinga M Stodkilde-Jorgensen H 2003 MRI scanning during Zen meditation: the picture of enlightenment? Constructivism in Human Sciences 8 85 90

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites [67] Farb NA Segal ZV Mayberg H 2007 Attending to the present: mindfulness meditation reveals distinct neural modes of self-reference Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 2 313 322 18985137 PMC2566754 source

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    • cites [70] Zeidan F Martucci KT Kraft RA 2011 Brain mechanisms supporting the modulation of pain by mindfulness meditation J Neurosci 31 5540 8 21471390 PMC3090218 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [80] Allen M Dietz M Blair KS 2012 Cognitive-affective neural plasticity following active-controlled mindfulness intervention J Neurosci 32 15601 10 23115195 PMC4569704 source

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    • cites [81] Lee TM Leung MK Hou WK 2012 Distinct neural activity associated with focused-attention meditation and loving-kindness meditation PLoS ONE 7 e40054 22905090 PMC3419705 source

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  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Kaul et al. also found meditation improved decrements in psychomotor vigilance task performance following a night of sleep deprivation, so that meditation practice increased wakefulness.

    “This study also found that meditation improved decrements in PVT vigilance following a night of sleep deprivation, so that meditation practice increased wakefulness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [55] Kaul P Passafiume J Sargent C 2010 Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need Behavioral and brain Functions 6 47 56 20670413 PMC2919439 source

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    Findingcitation

    Jha et al. found orienting and directed attention improved in the MBSR group, but tonic alertness improved only in long-term meditators and was directly associated with prior meditation practice.

    “Orienting and directed attention improved in the MBSR group, but tonic alertness improved only in long-term meditators and was directly associated with prior meditation practice.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [49] Jha AP Krompinger J Baime MJ 2007 Mindfulness training modifies subsystems of attention Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 7 109 19 17672382 source

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    Findingcitation

    Increases in wake-related or sleep-inhibiting neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin have been found in studies of non-Buddhist meditation, though the relationship between peripheral and brain levels is unclear.

    “Increases in wake-related/sleep-inhibiting neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine,16,26,47,112, 113 dopamine,114 and serotonin,77,115–118 have been found in studies of non-Buddhist forms of meditation, although the relationship between peripheral and brain levels is unclear.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 10 sources checked
    • cites [16] Young JD Taylor E 1998 Meditation as a Voluntary Hypometabolic State of Biological Estivation News Physiol Sci 13 149 153 11390779 source

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    • cites [26] Holmes DS 1984 Meditation and somatic arousal reduction American Psychologist 39 1 10 6142668 source

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    • cites [47] Srinivasan N Baijal S 2007 Concentrative meditation enhances preattentive processing: a mismatch negativity study Neuroreport 18 1709 12 17921873 source

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    • cites [112] Lang R Dehof K Meurer KA 1979 Sympathetic activity and transcendental meditation Journal of Neural Transmission 44 117 35 374684 source

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    • cites [113] Morrell EM Hollandsworth JG Jr 1986 Norepinephrine alterations under stress conditions following the regular practice of meditation Psychosomatic Medicine 48 270 7 3517923 source

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    • cites [114] Kjaer TW Bertelsen C Piccini P 2002 Increased dopamine tone during meditation-induced change of consciousness Cognitive Brain Research 13 255 9 11958969 source

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    • cites [77] Yu X Fumoto M Nakatani Y 2011 Activation of the anterior prefrontal cortex and serotonergic system is associated with improvements in mood and EEG changes induced by Zen meditation practice in novices International Journal of Psychophysiology 80 103 111 21333699 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [115] Walton KG Pugh ND Gelderloos P 1995 Stress reduction and preventing hypertension: Preliminary support for a psychoneuroendocrine mechanism Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 1 263 83 9395623 source

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    • cites [116] Bujatti M Rierderer P 1976 Serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine metabolites in transcendental meditation-technique Journal of Neural Transmission 39 257 267 789821 source

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    • cites [117] Loliger S 1991 Relationship between subjective bliss, 5-hydroxy-3-indoleacetic acid and the collective practice of Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Sidhi Program Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering 52 551 source

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    Findingcitation

    The right insula has greater gray matter concentration and thickness in meditators and greater activation during meditation and on tasks following mindfulness training.

    “The (right) insula has been found to have greater gray matter concentration82,92 and thickness66,93 in meditators and greater activation both during meditation65,76 and on tasks following mindfulness training.67,70,80,87–89,94”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [82] Holzel BK Ott U Gard T 2008 Investigation of mindfulness meditation practitioners with voxel-based morphometry Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 3 55 61 19015095 PMC2569815 source

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    • cites [92] Hölzel BK Carmody J Vangel M 2011 Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 191 36 43 PMC3004979 21071182 source

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    • cites [66] Lazar SW Kerr CE Wasserman RH 2005 Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness Neuroreport 16 1893 7 16272874 PMC1361002 source

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    • cites [93] Grant JA Courtemanche J Duerden EG 2010 Cortical thickness and pain sensitivity in zen meditators Emotion 10 43 53 20141301 source

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    • cites [65] Hasenkamp W Wilson-Mendenhall CD Duncan E 2012 Mind wandering and attention during focused meditation: a fine-grained temporal analysis of fluctuating cognitive states Neuroimage 59 750 60 21782031 source

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites [76] Manna A Raffone A Perrucci MG 2010 Neural correlates of focused attention and cognitive monitoring in meditation Brain Res Bull 82 46 56 20223285 source

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation

    Many meditation studies have described subjective reports of decreased arousal, especially in hyper-aroused individuals, but reports of increased energy and arousal following meditation are also prevalent.

    “While many meditation studies have described subjective reports of decreased arousal, especially in the hyper-aroused,132 reports of increased energy and arousal following meditation are also prevalent.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [132] Ong JC Shapiro SL Manber R 2008 Combining mindfulness meditation with cognitive-behavior therapy for insomnia: a treatment-development study Behav Ther 39 171 82 18502250 PMC3052789 source

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    Findingcitation

    Valentine and Sweet found alerting capabilities were associated with length of practice, and open monitoring practitioners outperformed focused attention meditators on tonic but not phasic alertness.

    “Valentine and Sweet40 compared experienced Buddhist meditators to controls on a sustained attention task that included both phasic and tonic alerting (i.e., expected and unexpected stimuli). Alerting capabilities were associated with length of practice and OM practitioners outperformed FA meditators on indices of tonic (but not phasic) alertness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [40] Valentine E Sweet P 1999 Meditation and attention: A comparison of the effects of concentrative and mindfulness meditation on sustained attention Mental Health, Religion, and culture 2 59 70 source

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    Findingcitation

    Functional connectivity studies indicate increased connectivity between anterior and posterior default mode network nodes at rest and during meditation in experienced meditators with 10,000 h of practice but not following 8 weeks of training.

    “Functional connectivity studies of meditation have indicated increased connectivity between anterior and posterior nodes of the DMN at rest123,124 and during meditation125,126 in experienced meditators with 10,000 h of practice but not following 8 weeks of training,127”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 5 sources checked
    • cites [123] Taylor VA Daneault V Grant J 2013 Impact of meditation training on the default mode network during a restful state Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 8 4 14 22446298 PMC3541485 source

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    • cites [124] Lutz A Greischar LL Rawlings NB 2004 Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 101 16369 73 15534199 PMC526201 source

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    • cites [125] Hasenkamp W Barsalou LW 2012 Effects of meditation experience on functional connectivity of distributed brain networks Frontiers in human neuroscience 6 38 22403536 PMC3290768 source

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    • cites [126] Jang JH Jung WH Kang DH 2011 Increased default mode network connectivity associated with meditation Neurosci Lett 487 358 62 21034792 source

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    • cites [127] Kilpatrick LA Suyenobu BY Smith SR 2011 Impact of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction training on intrinsic brain connectivity Neuroimage 56 290 8 21334442 PMC3072791 source

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    Findingcitation

    Each objective index of increased cortical arousal was correlated with amount of home meditation practice in a linear dose-dependent fashion, supporting that increased arousal was due to meditation.

    “Each of these objective indices of increased cortical arousal was correlated with amount of home meditation practice in a linear dose-dependent fashion, which further supports that the increased arousal was due to meditation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Britton WB Haynes PL Fridel KW 2010 Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression Psychosom Med 72 539 48 20467003 source

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    Findingcitation

    Over the trial, the MBCT group increased in stage-1 minutes, awakenings, and arousals, and decreased in percent slow-wave sleep compared to waitlist controls.

    “Over the course of the trial, the MBCT group increased in stage-1 minutes, awakenings, and arousals, and decreased in percent of slow-wave (stage 3 and 4) sleep compared to waitlist controls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Britton WB Haynes PL Fridel KW 2010 Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression Psychosom Med 72 539 48 20467003 source

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    Findingcitation

    Britton et al. found that as little as 5-10 min/day for 2-3 days/week increased self-reported sleep duration by more than an hour, but as practice times approached 30 min/day, sleep duration began to decrease and cortical arousal began to increase.

    “Britton et al.175 found that as little as 5–10 min/day for 2–3 days/week (<1 h/week) increased self-reported sleep duration by more than an hour, but that as practice times approached 30 min/day (>3 h/week), then sleep duration began to decrease (Fig. 2D) and cortical arousal began to increase (Fig. 2A–C).164”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites [175] Britton WB Bootzin RR Cousins JC 2010 The contribution of mindfulness practice to a multicomponent behavioral sleep intervention following substance abuse treatment in adolescents: a treatment-development study Subst Abus 31 86 97 20408060 source

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    • cites [164] Britton WB Haynes PL Fridel KW 2010 Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression Psychosom Med 72 539 48 20467003 source

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    Findingcitation

    Meditators had significantly reduced total sleep time (6.2 vs. 6.7 h, P= 0.001) and increased minutes of wake after sleep onset (74 vs. 44 min, P =0.003) compared to controls.

    “The meditators had a significantly reduced total sleep time (6.2 vs. 6.7 h, P= 0.001) as well as increased minutes of wake after sleep onset (74 vs. 44 min, P =0.003) compared to controls.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [165] Ferrarelli F Smith R Dentico D in press Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep PloS one PMC3756031 24015304

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    Findingown data

    Indices of increased cortical arousal were associated with improvement in depression scores, including increased awakenings, arousals, stage-1 minutes, and reduced overall sleep time, so larger increase in cortical arousal corresponded to larger decrease in depression scores.

    “First, these indices of increases in cortical arousal were also associated with an improvement in depression (Beck depression inventory (BDI) scores)), including increased awakenings, arousals, stage-1 minutes, as well as reduced overall sleep time (r= –0.60), so that the larger increase in cortical arousal, the larger the decrease in depression scores.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation

    Several polysomnographic sleep studies have found greater cortical arousal during sleep in meditators, including increased stage-1 sleep, alpha-theta wake-like EEG, arousals, reduced slow-wave sleep, and increased gamma.

    “In support of such increased wakefulness during sleep, several polysomnographic sleep studies have found greater cortical arousal during sleep in meditators, including increased stage-1 sleep, alpha-theta (wake-like) EEG, arousals, reduced slow-wave sleep,144, 162,164 and increased gamma.165”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 4 sources checked
    • cites [144] Banquet JP Sailhan M 1974 EEG analysis of spontaneous and induced states of consciousness Revue d’Electroencephalographie et de Neurophysiologie Clinique 4 445 453 4470966 source

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    • cites [162] Mason L Alexander C Travis F 1997 Electrophysiological correlates of higher states of consciousness during sleep in long term practitioners of the TM program Sleep 20 102 110 9143069 source

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    • cites [164] Britton WB Haynes PL Fridel KW 2010 Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression Psychosom Med 72 539 48 20467003 source

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    • cites [165] Ferrarelli F Smith R Dentico D in press Experienced mindfulness meditators exhibit higher parietal-occipital EEG gamma activity during NREM sleep PloS one PMC3756031 24015304 source

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    Findingcitation

    Although there was no overall treatment effect on sleep duration, average diary total sleep at post-treatment was negatively correlated with minutes of daily practice, so more meditation was associated with less sleep.

    “Although there was no overall treatment effect on sleep duration, average (diary) total sleep at post-treatment was negatively correlated with minutes of daily practice, so that more meditation was associated with less sleep (Fig. 2A–D).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [164] Britton WB Haynes PL Fridel KW 2010 Polysomnographic and subjective profiles of sleep continuity before and after mindfulness-based cognitive therapy in partially remitted depression Psychosom Med 72 539 48 20467003 source

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    Traditional Buddhist formulations present meditation as relaxed alertness that must avoid both excessive hyperarousal and excessive hypoarousal.

    “Buddhist texts describe meditation practice as aiming to cultivate a state of relaxed alertness, and therefore must continually balance between the extremes of hyperarousal, agitation, and restlessness on the one hand, and hypoarousal, excessive relaxation, mental dullness, and sleep on the other (Fig. 1).4–6”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [4] Pandita SU 1992 In this very life: the liberation teachings of the Buddha Boston Wisdom

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    • cites [5] Gunaratana H 2002 Mindfulness in Plain English Boston Wisdom

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    • cites [6] Bodhi B 2012 The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Anguttara Nikaya Boston Wisdom

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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation

    Focused attention and open monitoring are foundational in Buddhist and many non-Buddhist meditation practices.

    “This review emphasizes two common forms of attention training, focused attention (FA) and open monitoring (OM), which are foundational in Buddhist and many non-Buddhist meditation practices.27”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites [27] Lutz A Slagter HA Dunne JD 2008 Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation Trends in cognitive sciences 12 163 9 18329323 PMC2693206 source

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    Premisecitation

    Some modern formulations describe meditation's goal as a half-asleep state, a twilight between waking and sleep, equivalent to sleep, or a sleep-like hibernation reversed by wakefulness.

    “In some modern formulations, the goal of meditation has expanded beyond relaxation and decreased arousal7–10 to include a state of consciousness that is deliberately half-asleep, a “physiological twilight condition between waking and sleep,”11–13 equivalent to sleep,14, 15 or a form of sleep-like hibernation, a “shallow torpor”16 that is reversed by (i.e., the opposite of) wakefulness.17”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 6 sources checked
    • cites [11] Cahn BR Polich J 2006 Meditation states and traits: EEG, ERP, and neuroimaging studies Psychological Bulletin 132 180 211 16536641 source

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    • cites [12] Fenwick PB Donaldson S Gillis L 1977 Metabolic and EEG changes during transcendental meditation: an explanation Biol Psychol 5 101 18 328063 source

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    • cites [13] Williams P West M 1975 EEG responses to photic stimulation in persons experienced at meditation Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology 39 519 522 52446 source

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    • cites [14] Pagano RR Rose RM Stivers RM 1976 Sleep during transcendental meditation Science 191 308 10 1108200 source

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    • cites [15] Younger J Adriance W Berger RJ 1975 Sleep during transcendental meditation Perceptual and Motor Skills 40 953 954 1101188 source

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    • cites [16] Young JD Taylor E 1998 Meditation as a Voluntary Hypometabolic State of Biological Estivation News Physiol Sci 13 149 153 11390779

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  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisenone given

    Most meditation forms share deliberate attention training, either focused and directed or open and receptive, as foundational.

    “While there are many different forms of meditation, most agree that the deliberate training of attention, either in a focused and directed or open and receptive way, is a foundational part of any meditation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Tonic alertness provides the cognitive tone for more complex functions such as working memory and executive control, and all other forms of attention are thought to depend on it.

    “Because tonic alertness provides the cognitive tone for performing more complicated functions, such as working memory and executive control,32,33 it is thought that all other forms of attention are dependent on tonic alertness.34”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites [32] Sturm W de Simone A Krause BJ 1999 Functional anatomy of intrinsic alertness: evidence for a fronto-parietal-thalamic-brainstem network in the right hemisphere Neuropsychologia 37 797 805 10408647 source

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    • cites [33] Posner MI 2008 Measuring alertness Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1129 193 199 18591480 source

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    • cites [34] Raz A Buhle J 2006 Typologies of attentional networks Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7 367 379 16760917 source

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    Interpretationcitation

    Relaxing and sleep-promoting effects might be expected at low doses or early stages of practice, while more alertness, wakefulness, and less sleep might occur as dose or practice progresses.

    “Specifically, relaxing and sleep-promoting effects might be expected at low doses or early stages of practice (such as an introductory 8-week program), but more alertness, wakefulness, and less sleep as dose or practice progresses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
21 of 21

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The neuroimaging, EEG, and behavioral measures used in the reviewed studies validly index tonic alertness, wakefulness, and sleep propensity.

    “Tonic alertness is associated with activity in right hemisphere cortical areas and subcortical networks, particularly the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the anterior insula, the inferior parietal lobule, the thalamus, and the brainstem (Table 1).30–32,35,60–64”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Amount of meditation practice, such as hours of practice, is a valid proxy for meditative expertise or proficiency.

    “Indeed, many studies have found positive correlations between meditative expertise (practice amount) and subjective, neurological, and behavioral measures of wakefulness (see Table 2).”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Findings from diverse meditation traditions and study designs can be combined to support general conclusions about Buddhist meditation practices.

    “Although there is much variability in the methodologies, practice, and sample characteristics, more than 25 neuroimaging studies have found that Buddhist meditation practices are associated with activation/enlargement of the areas that underlie tonic alertness and/or prevent sleep both during meditation (state) and at rest or during tasks (trait).”
3 of 3

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • Previous studies have found that meditation-related challenges are more likely with more practice amount or intensity.

    “Several previous studies have also found that meditation-related challenges are more likely with more practice amount or intensity (Britton et al., 2014; Britton et al., 2019; Britton et al., in press; Lindahl et al., 2017; Schlosser et al., 2019).”

    From Prevalence of meditation-related adverse effects in a population-based sample in the United States (2022) · cites this paper as Britton et al., 2014

    The “More awake during sleep” section (page unavailable) reports that more home meditation practice was associated with greater cortical arousal and less sleep; “Meditation and sleep amount” reports less sleep during intensive retreats. These passages support a practice-dose relationship for sleep changes, but the paper does not establish that meditation-related challenges generally become more likely with more practice. It describes reduced sleep during intensive practice as a possible sign of progress, not necessarily a challenge. (LLM, conf=0.78)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Britton et al. reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate that certain types of meditation, mostly from the Theravada and Mahayana traditions, can activate neural areas that are associated with tonic alertness.

    “In line with this hypothesis, Britton et al. [25] reviewed over 20 studies that demonstrate that certain types of meditation, mostly from the Theravada and Mahayana traditions, can activate neural areas that are associated with tonic alertness.”

    From The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on the Autonomic System and Attention (2015) · cites this paper as [25]

    The Functional connectivity section reports that more than 25 neuroimaging studies associated Buddhist meditation practices with activation or enlargement of brain areas underlying tonic alertness. The Neuroimaging studies section identifies those areas. Our copy does not establish that the practices studied were mostly from the Theravada and Mahayana traditions. (LLM, conf=0.84)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Britton et al. reviewed studies showing that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation can activate the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior insula, inferior parietal lobule, thalamus, and brain stem, which are areas implicated in tonic alertness.

    “Importantly, Britton et al. [25] reviewed studies that showed that Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation can activate the dACC, DLPFC, the anterior insula, the inferior parietal lobule, the thalamus, and the brain stem, which are areas that are implicated in tonic alertness [25, 63].”

    From The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on the Autonomic System and Attention (2015) · cites this paper as [25]

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Neuroimaging studies have shown that activity in brain regions related to tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation.

    “As reviewed in Britton et al. [25], neuroimaging studies have shown that the activity in brain regions related to tonic awareness can be enhanced during Theravada and Mahayana types of meditation.”

    From The Influence of Buddhist Meditation Traditions on the Autonomic System and Attention (2015) · cites this paper as [25]

    The Neuroimaging studies section reports increased activity during Buddhist meditation in regions associated with tonic alertness, including the DLPFC and dACC. The review does not establish that this neuroimaging finding applies specifically to both Theravada and Mahayana meditation; its explicit discussion of Theravada Vipassana here concerns sleep duration and EEG findings. (LLM, conf=0.82)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Britton et al. (2014) provided a neurobiological model for sleep-related changes.

    “In a review paper, Britton et al. (2014) [129] provided a neurobiological model for sleep-related changes.”

    From The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists (2017) · cites this paper as [129]

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • A Zen meditation study is classified as non-Buddhist

    Minor

    The statement classifies the cited neurotransmitter studies as studies of non-Buddhist meditation, but its serotonin citations include reference 77, which identifies its practice as Zen meditation, a Buddhist practice.

1 of 1

Cites

Flagged first, then by citations

4 of the 198 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Research works printed but not linked: 6

  1. Bodhi B., 2012, The Numerical Discourses of the Buddha: A New Translation of the Anguttara Nikaya
  2. Kyabgon T., 2003, Mind at Ease: Self‐Liberation through Mahamudra Meditation
  3. Posner M.I., 1990, Annu. Rev. Neurosci, 25
  4. Loliger S., 1991, Relationship between subjective bliss, 5‐hydroxy‐3‐indoleacetic acid and the collective practice of Maharishi's Transcendental Meditation and TM‐Sidhi Program, Dissert. Abstr. Int.: Section B: Sci. Eng., 52, 551
  5. Kornfield J., 1979, Intensive insight meditation: a phenomenological study, J. Transpers. Psychol., 11, 41
  6. Goyal M., 2012, Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

Cited by

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Related

Authors
Britton, W. B., Lindahl, J. R., Cahn, B. R., Davis, J. H., & Goldman, R. E.
Affiliations
  • Brown University (US)
  • Warren Wilson College (US)
  • University of California, Irvine (US)
  • The Graduate Center, CUNY (US)
Corresponding author
Britton, Willoughby B.
ORCID
Venue
Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
Publisher
Wiley
Published
2013-12-26
Volume
1307
Issue
1
Pages
64-81
ISSN
  • 0077-8923 (ISSN-L)
  • 1749-6632
DOI
10.1111/nyas.12279
PMC
PMC4054695
OpenAlex
W1803085572
Cited by
134
References
198
Citations by year
2026: 10 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 20 · 2023: 11 · 2022: 10 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 11 · 2017: 11 · 2016: 5 · 2015: 10 · 2014: 3
FWCI
0.89
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Licence
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/termsAndConditions#vor (vor)
Locations
  • Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (NIH) (T32-AT001287, MH067553-05)
  • Mind and Life Institute
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Mindfulness and Compassion Interventions
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Sleep and related disorders
  • Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Mind wandering and attention
Keywords
Buddhist meditation, wakefulness, arousal, alertness, restlessness, sleepiness, sleep propensity, neuroplasticity, Buddhist texts
MeSH terms
Arousal, Brain Mapping, Buddhism, Electroencephalography, Fatigue, Humans, Neuronal Plasticity, Sleep, Sleep Stages, Wakefulness, Meditation

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-04.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-10-04.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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