The effects of acute stress on episodic memory: A meta-analysis and integrative review.

Stress induced via laboratory protocols such as TSST leads to memory impairments.

“Namely, stress induced via protocols in laboratory settings such as TSST leads to memory impairments (Shields et al., 2017)”

Stress induction leads to a decline in memory performance if no specific strategies are used.

“Stress induction leads to a decline in memory performance if no specific strategies are used (Shields et al., 2017).”

Previous work has found differing effects for test format on memory (i.e., cued recall vs. recognition tests) during stress.

“Previous work has also found differing effects for test format on memory (i.e., cued recall vs. recognition tests) during stress (see Shields et al., 2017), opening doors for future studies to further investigate how different types of memory assessments interact with stress to influence memory performance.”

Attentional narrowing due to extreme stress and strong emotions affects memory encoding and increases the occurrence of false memories.

“Attentional narrowing due to extreme stress and strong emotions affects the memory encoding process (Shields et al., 2017), increasing the occurrence of false memories (Kaplan et al., 2016; Van Damme et al., 2017).”

A decrease in sympathetic activity during the hypnotic state helps reduce emotional distress that negatively affects memory functions.

“A decrease in sympathetic activity during the hypnotic state helps in reducing emotional distress that negatively affects memory functions (Shields et al., 2017).”

Because stress shows opposite effects for consolidation and retrieval phases, using a short retention interval is problematic for isolating the effects of encoding stress on memory.

“However, because stress shows opposite e ff ects for consolidation and retrieval phases (e.g., Shields et al., 2017; Wolf, 2017), this methodological decision is problematic for isolating the e ff ects of encoding stress on memory (see Sauerland et al., 2016; Thomas & Karanian, 2019).”

Fundamental theory and research suggest that stressor relevance is an important moderator of the relationship between acute encoding stress and memory performance.

“Indeed, fundamental theory and research suggest that stressor relevance is an important moderator of the relationship between acute encoding stress and memory performance (e.g., Joëls et al., 2006; Shields et al., 2017).”

Fundamental memory models suggest that encoding stress can benefit memory performance when acute stress occurs within the same context as encoding (same time and space).

“fundamental memory models suggest that encoding stress can bene fi t memory performance (de Kloet et al., 1999; Diamond et al., 2007; Joëls et al., 2006; Schwabe et al., 2012). These models suggest this should happen when acute stress occurs within the same context as the encoding, that is, in the same time and space (Joëls et al., 2006; Shields et al., 2017).”

Stressor relevance moderates the relationship between acute encoding stress and memory performance.

“stressor relevance moderates the relationship between acute encoding stress and memory performance (Joëls et al., 2006; Shields et al., 2017).”

Biological sex and time of day are important moderating factors of stress and memory.

“Other important moderating factors of stress and memory are biological sex and the time of day that testing takes place (e.g., Shields et al., 2017).”

Stressors experienced at retrieval decrease memory and learning.

“Stressors like test anxiety are known to decrease memory retrieval”