Cited by 2,622Mental Health Treatment and AccessChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentGender Roles and Identity Studies

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 272 of the 276 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 92 sources its claims cite were checked for support.

Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms

Open access

Salk, Rachel H., Hyde, Janet S., Abramson, Lyn Y.·2017·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/bul0000102PMC PMC5532074

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Abstract

In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record

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Crossref · 10.1037/bul0000102

Cites

272 of 272 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

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Claims the paper makes

13 of 92 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured

Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“odds ratios (ORs, female/male) for 12-month major depressive episode (MDE1) ranged from 1.2 to 2.7 across 18 countries and 89,037 participants”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results table of sociodemographic associations reports a female-to-male odds ratio of 1.2 for 12-month MDE in China, and the Sociodemographic factors text reports 2.7 in Spain. Methods > Sampling and procedure states that the study included 18 countries and 89,037 participants. The 1.2 estimate was not statistically significant, but the claim does not say that every odds ratio was significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedn = 89,037
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited findings in adulthood are inconsistent with respect to both the magnitude and direction of the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Angst et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mirowsky, 1996 source
- Partly supported
  The Results (Depression) and Discussion describe variation by country and age, including a slight reversal in Japan that was not statistically significant. But the paper studies middle and older ages, not adulthood broadly, and its Discussion says the literature generally finds higher depression prevalence in women from young adulthood through early old age. It does not support characterizing the limited findings across adulthood as inconsistent in direction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
  cites Oksuzyan et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Partly supported
  The Results section (‘Tests of interaction in NESARC data’; page unavailable) reports a non-significant race × sex interaction (P = 0.89), consistent with no detected Black–White variation in the sex difference in lifetime major depression. The study tests Black and White respondents, not ethnicity broadly, and says it lacked sufficient power to test the interaction for 12-month depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)
  cites Barnes et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Breslau et al., 2006
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Oquendo et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
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Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This absence of any substantial effect for nation-level wealth is consistent with other research (Bromet et al., 2011) indicating that economic development is not a major factor in cross-national variations in the magnitude of gender differences in depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors) report that the association between gender and major depressive episode did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). This supports the claim as an interpretation of the paper's income-group comparison, rather than proof that economic development has no effect. (LLM, conf=0.90)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
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- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.

Show all 107 claims

Probably not a substantial claim. 72
It may state two separate claims as one. 101
Borderline: one of the tests for a substantial claim is unclear. 1
Not yet classified. 1

Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A study including 18 countries from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys (Kessler & Usten, 2008) reported that the relationship between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors) analyze 12-month MDE across 18 countries and explicitly report that the association between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). (LLM, conf=0.95)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, findings also suggest that the 2:1 ratio is not universal and may vary substantially across nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results (Sociodemographic factors; page unavailable) report that women were twice as likely as men to have a major depressive episode on average, but country-specific odds ratios varied. The difference was not statistically significant in three of the 18 countries, supporting the hedged claim that the 2:1 ratio is not universal. (LLM, conf=0.91)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the vast majority of epidemiological reports on adults, women have higher rates of major depression compared to men; on average, the ratio is 2:1”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrade et al., 2003 source
- Supported
  The Background states that almost all studies find an association between gender and depression and that women have a twofold increased risk of major depressive episode. The Results (Sociodemographic factors) likewise report that women were, on average, twice as likely as men to have an episode across the countries studied. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Bromet et al., 2011 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Other widely held beliefs about gender differences, such as the gender difference in math performance, have sometimes been found to be inaccurate when the data are meta-analyzed”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008
- Supported
  The Abstract reports that a meta-analysis of 242 studies found no overall gender difference in mathematics performance (d = .05). The Gender and Mathematics Performance section says stereotypes of female inferiority contrast with the performance data, supporting the claim that meta-analysis has found this widely held belief inaccurate. (LLM, conf=0.93)
  cites Lindberg et al., 2010 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“there is increased recognition of the validity (e.g., Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011) and value (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) of dimensional assessments, as well as the impairment associated with sub-threshold levels of symptoms that do not meet diagnostic criteria.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Markon et al., 2011 source
- Supported
  The citation is attached specifically to the value of dimensional assessments, not to their validity or the separate statement about impairment from sub-threshold symptoms. In “The seven pillars,” the paper endorses a dimensional approach and explains its value for studying mild psychopathology and informing intervention cut-points. (LLM, conf=0.91)
  cites Cuthbert & Insel, 2013 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007 source
- Partly supported
  The Discussion reports the conflicting finding that Hopcroft and Bradley found a larger depression gender gap in high-equality countries, while this paper's results were more consistent with equality reducing women's disadvantage. But the Results say the overall interaction between gender and equality was not significant; a smaller gap at higher equality appeared only in certain subgroups and for certain measures. The sentence overstates this paper's finding as a general cross-country result. (LLM, conf=0.87)
  cites Van de Velde et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
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It may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Seedat and colleagues (2009) found a significant narrowing in the gender difference in depression in recent cohorts.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Abstract states that gender differences narrowed significantly in recent cohorts for major depressive disorder. The COMMENT section likewise reports significantly smaller gender differences in major depression in more recent cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.94)
  cites Seedat et al., 2009 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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Probably not a substantial claim.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One latent growth curve analysis indicated that girls’ depression symptoms accelerated early in adolescence and then leveled off, whereas boys’ symptom levels accelerated in late adolescence (Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016), consistent with the first possibility above.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Supported
  The Results section’s latent growth curve analysis says girls’ depression scores increased and then leveled off, while boys’ scores were initially low and increased more rapidly at later ages. The Discussion likewise describes girls’ symptoms accelerating early in adolescence and boys’ symptoms accelerating later. (LLM, conf=0.95)
  cites Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“On the face of it, greater contraceptive prevalence should indicate women’s greater control over reproduction and a lower rate of unwanted pregnancies, which are a risk factor for depression (e.g., Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Partly supported
  The Discussion (Main Findings) reports that women with unwanted pregnancies had a higher risk of postpartum depression than women with intended pregnancies. The claim says “depression” without limiting it to the postpartum period; the paper also cautions in the Discussion (Interpretation) that it cannot establish a causal relationship. The contraceptive-prevalence premise appears to be the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
  cites Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was not a range restriction for the literacy variable (ratios ranged from .31 to 1.07), which can have substantial negative skew (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both meta-analyses, the effect size peaked in adolescence but then declined and remained stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
  “Our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms peaks in adolescence, with the gender gap in diagnoses emerging earlier than previously thought (OR = 2.37 at age 12). The gender gap then narrows and remains stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously and has important implications for both theory and”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it was limited to the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) scale and samples of 8- to 16-year-old participants in the United States and Canada (n = 43,916).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Kovacs, 1985
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 43,916
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The theory predicts that larger gender differences should be observed in nations with more gender inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the theory, a society’s division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“Theories of developmental psychopathology contend that there are multiple pathways to the gender difference in depression involving combinations and interactions of risk factors that span multiple levels of analysis”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“there is no gender difference or even a somewhat higher prevalence of depression among boys than girls in childhood”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Avenevoli et al., 2008
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Eagly & Wood, 1999
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Petersen & Hyde, 2010 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To the extent that women report higher rates of violent victimization, this may contribute to the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Koss et al., 1994 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wichstrøm, 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“gender inequality is linked to discrimination against women, which may contribute to the gender difference”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Belle & Doucet, 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theories highlight how specific vulnerability factors come on-line at critical developmental periods in adolescence and/or interact with stressors in adolescence to produce the gender difference in adolescence”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents and adults with subthreshold depression symptoms and minor depression still experience significant impairment (e.g., Lewinsohn, Solomon, Seeley, & Zeiss, 2000) and are at elevated risk for later development of major depression and suicidal behaviors”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn et al., 2000 source
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Cuijpers et al., 2004
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fergusson et al., 2005 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The extant literature indicates that the prevalence of major depression in the United States varies both by gender and by ethnicity”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Breslau et al., 2006
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One recent narrative review concluded that internalizing problems for girls increased from the late 20th century to the 21st century”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bor et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“we follow MARS reporting standards”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites American Psychological Association Publications and Communications Board, 2008
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They argued that the strongest scientific evidence about gender differences does not come from small studies of convenience samples, but instead comes from larger studies based on representative samples of populations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Nowell, 1995 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“age of the participants (measured on a continuous scale, using the reported mean or the midpoint of the age range), r = .99”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
  “country, κ (kappa) = 1.00”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
  “predominant (≥ 85%) ethnic group of participants (Caucasian, African American, Asian American, Hispanic, Native American, other, mixed, or unreported), κ = 1.00; and (d) year of data collection, r = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“a meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem found a small difference favoring Caucasian males over Caucasian females, d = 0.20, but no gender difference for African American samples, d = −0.04”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kling et al., 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Raw effect sizes were corrected for bias (i.e., the upward-bias of effect sizes among small samples; Hedges, 1981); however, most correction factors were close to 1.0 given the large sample sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges, 1981 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest et al., 2010 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Reilly et al., 2015 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“These results differ from those of Hankin and colleagues (1998), who found that that the gender gap in major depression emerged between ages 13 and 15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hankin and colleagues (1998)
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, early puberty is disadvantageous for girls but not boys, for outcomes such as depression (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“A third possibility results from the observation that depression is a recurrent disorder (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, temperament, present from infancy and early childhood, predicts later depression (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“For example, in the 21st century women constitute 47% of the U.S. labor force, compared to 30% in 1950 (Costello et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Costello et al., 2003
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Research suggests that negative cognitive style may not emerge as a stable trait until ages 9.5 to 12.5, and the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction does not become a reliable predictor of depression until ages 13.5 to 14.5, i.e., in early adolescence (Cole et al., 2008).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole et al., 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the gender difference in depression is created at least in part by girls who go through puberty early, because of any of several processes, such as early-puberty girls encountering more peer sexual harassment than boys and on-time girls (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, the typical assessment of symptoms often represents a short period of time, such as a week, whereas diagnoses involve aggregation over longer periods, often a year (Haeffel et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haeffel et al., 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted earlier, theories guided by developmental psychopathology have focused on explaining the emergence of the gender difference in adolescence (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b), but did not attend to development across adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another theoretical account rests on cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression, which have been well supported in samples of college students and adults (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Hyde et al., 2008b
Strength:boosted· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given that depression is a global health priority (World Health Organization, 2016), it is imperative to understand disparities in depression and which subgroups are most in need of services.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites World Health Organization, 2016
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results indicated high agreement between the two; for major depressive disorder, kappa = 0.97, with 99.7% agreement between the two sources (see also Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wittchen, Robins, Cottler, Sartorius, Burke, & Regier, 1991 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, perhaps counterintuitively, gender differences were larger in nations with more gender equity, a finding that was consistent across three indicators.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Guimond et al., 2007 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Guimond and colleagues (2007) proposed that gender differences in self-construals are larger in contexts in which individuals make intergroup social comparisons, e.g., when they compare themselves to an out-group such as the other gender.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Guimond and colleagues (2007)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
In the paper
“One early review concluded that the gender difference in depression is a real difference and not a measurement artifact (Weissman & Klerman, 1977).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not matched
  Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
  cites Weissman & Klerman, 1977
Strength:plain· not yet calibrated
Tests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passes
Probably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“The emphasis on adolescents is particularly important because depression is a recurring disorder, so an episode in adolescence can predispose the individual to later episodes (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibrated
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
It may state two separate claims as one.

146 of 146

The paper relies on this without support.
The existing literature on gender differences in depression had not been meta-analytically synthesized before this study.
“this large body of sometimes inconsistent research has yet to be synthesized meta-analytically.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
“We selected domain-specific indicators of gender equity (rather than composite indicators) that should, theoretically, be tied to gender differences in depression”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mixed-effects model used for moderator analyses assumes that variability among effect sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (error variance).
“The mixed-effects model assumes that variability among effects sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (i.e., error variance).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
“For major depression diagnoses, variability in the gender difference in depression was linked to measures of national wealth and gender equity.”

5 of 5

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

Consistentt(299) = 1961.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(299) = 1961.63, p < .001”
Consistentt(412) = 9542.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(412) = 9542.50, p < .001”

2 of 2

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

Conflicting percentages for researcher-supplied symptom data
Minor
The results state that 357 of 413 symptom effect sizes (86%) came from data obtained from authors, but the limitations section gives 76% for the same category.

1 of 1

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
Using multivariate statistics
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (1983) · Cited by 79,882
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
Radloff, L. S. (1977) · Applied Psychological Measurement · doi:10.1177/014662167700100306 · Cited by 53,267
The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x · Cited by 47,139 · cited 2×
“…Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977); SCL-D Symptom Checklist-90- Depression items (Derogatis et al., 1973); HADS-D Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale- Depression subscale (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983); RADS Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (Reynolds, 1986); EURO-D (Prince et al., 1999); MHI-D…”
The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x · Cited by 44,910 · cited 2×
“The OR (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001) was the effect size used for the meta-analysis on major depression diagnoses; Cohen’s d (Cohen, Table 2 (continued) Study d Country NM NF Measure Year Age Sample E F von Soest et al. (2014)a .38 Norway 610 653 SCL-D 2010 14 Young in Norway 2 von Soest et al. (2014)a .52 Norway 573 695 SC…”
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032 · cited 2×
“…American, 4 85% Asian American, 5 85% Hispanic; F focus of article: 1 gender, 2 depression, 3 other; a received additional data from author; BDI Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961, 1996); DMI Depressive Mood Inventory (see Abebe et al., 2016); CDI Children’s Depression Inventory…”
Untitled work
(1992) · PubMed · Cited by 33,716
Untitled work
(1998) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · Cited by 19,139

Flagged first, then by citations

Show all 276 references

4 of the 276 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 2,611

Impact of Sertraline, Fluoxetine, and Escitalopram on Psychological Distress among United States Adult Outpatients with a Major Depressive Disorder
Adjei, K., Adunlin, G., & Ali, A. A. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11050740 · Cited by 12
Impact of Gender on Insomnia
Boer, J. D., Höhle, N., Rosenblum, L., & Fietze, I. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13030480 · Cited by 15
New directions in male-tailored psychotherapy for depression
Eggenberger, L., Ehlert, U., & Walther, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1146078 · Cited by 12
“Notably, the gender gap in depressive disorders (i.e., men being half as likely to be diagnosed with depressive disorders than women; Salk et al., 2017; Vos et al., 2017) disappears when externalizing symptoms are considered for depression diagnoses (Martin et al.”
Background
An atlas of trait associations with resting-state and task-evoked human brain functional organizations in the UK Biobank
Zhao, B., Li, T., Li, Y., Fan, Z., Xiong, D., Wang, X., Gao, M., Smith, S. M., & Hongtu Zhu, B. (2023) · Imaging Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/imag_a_00015 · Cited by 12
“Considering the fact that depression is two times more prevalent in females than in males ( Salk et al., 2017), our results may help understand the brain function-related sex differences in depression ( Labaka et al., 2018).”
Result
Psychometric Validation of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scales–Parent Version (RCADS-P) in Children Evaluated for ADHD
Becker, S. P., Schindler, D. N., Luebbe, A. M., Tamm, L., & Epstein, J. N. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191117735886 · Cited by 14
Predictive utility of subtyping women smokers on depression, eating, and weight-related symptoms.
Salk, R. H., Germeroth, L. J., Emery, R. L., Kolko, R. P., Wang, Z., Cheng, Y., Marcus, M. D., Perkins, K. A., & Levine, M. D. (2019) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0000702 · Cited by 11
Self-citation
Profiles of individual assets and mental health symptoms in at‐risk early adolescents
Min, M. O., Yoon, D., Minnes, S., Ridenour, T. A., & Singer, L. T. (2019) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.06.012 · Cited by 15
Sex Differences in Early Life
Wong, W. I., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.009 · Cited by 12
Pain, Motivation, Migraine, and the Microbiome: New Frontiers for Opioid Systems and Disease
Parker, K. E., Sugiarto, E., Taylor, A. M. W., Pradhan, A. A. A., & Al‐Hasani, R. (2020) · Molecular Pharmacology · doi:10.1124/mol.120.119438 · Cited by 14
“…any sex differences in the role of pnVTA nociceptinergic circuitry in reward motivation in our study, there is considerable evidence supporting a robust difference in MDD, with almost twice as many women suffering from MDD than men (Hyde et al., 2008; Salk et al., 2017; Hyde and Mezulis, 2020).”
Background
Is “Busy” Always Better? Time-Use Activities and Depressive Symptoms Among Older Mexican Adults
Gutierrez, S., Milani, S. A., & Wong, R. (2020) · Innovation in Aging · doi:10.1093/geroni/igaa030 · Cited by 14
“However, studies do find that the gender disparities observed among adolescents persist into adulthood and late life (Hankin et al., 1998; Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Structural Connectivity Between Rostral Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Amygdala Predicts First Onset of Depressive Disorders in Adolescence
Jin, J., Delaparte, L., Chen, H. W., DeLorenzo, C., Perlman, G., Klein, D. N., Mohanty, A., & Kotov, R. (2021) · Biological Psychiatry Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging · doi:10.1016/j.bpsc.2021.01.012 · Cited by 14
Relationship of negative life events with depression and anxiety in nursing students: a moderated mediation model of resilience and gender
Ye, X., Yang, G., Zhang, W., Toussaint, L. L., & Zhao, F. (2025) · BMC Nursing · doi:10.1186/s12912-024-02661-x · Cited by 12
Plasma redox and inflammatory patterns during major depressive episodes: a cross-sectional investigation in elderly patients with mood disorders
Carpita, B., Betti, L., Palego, L., Bartolommei, N., Chico, L., Pasquali, L., Siciliano, G., Monzani, F., Franchi, R., Rogani, S., et al. (2020) · CNS Spectrums · doi:10.1017/s1092852920001443 · Cited by 12
“We found a higher number of females among the DP group: this is not surprising, considering that gender prevalence is a well-known feature of depression also in younger subjects.(74) As expected, the DP group scored significantly higher in all psychometric scales for depression, anxiety and suicidality (HAMA,HAM-D, GD…”
Sex-related Differences in Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein-positive GABA Regulate Neuropathology Following Pilocarpine-induced Status Epilepticus
Hong, G. P., Kim, M.-H., & Kim, H. J. (2021) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.08.002 · Cited by 11
Gender, mental health and travel
Mackett, R. L. (2021) · Transportation · doi:10.1007/s11116-021-10231-2 · Cited by 11
Naturalistic randomized controlled trial demonstrating effectiveness of Text4Hope in supporting male population mental health during the COVID-19 pandemic
Shalaby, R., Agyapong, B., Vuong, W., Hrabok, M., Gusnowski, A., Surood, S., Greenshaw, A. J., & Agyapong, V. I. O. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1002288 · Cited by 11
“Such disparity is often reported among males, particularly young adolescents with depressive symptoms (10).”
Background
Feeling low and unhappy together? An actor-partner-interdependence model uncovering the linkage between different operationalizations of relationship quality and depression in different-sex couples
Aguilar‐Raab, C., Winter, F., Jarczok, M. N., Ditzen, B., & Warth, M. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274756 · Cited by 11
“The gender gap has been reported to emerge early in childhood at age 12, then to narrow and remain stable in adulthood [16].”
Background
Mental health and sociodemographic characteristics among Icelanders, data from a cross-sectional study in Iceland
Sigurdardottir, S., Aspelund, T., Guðmundsdóttir, D. G., Fjorback, L. O., Hrafnkelsson, H., Hansdóttir, I., & Juul, L. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-04504-y · Cited by 11
Lower urinary tract symptoms are elevated with depression in Japanese women
Ninomiya, S., Kawahara, T., Tsutsumi, S., Ito, H., Makiyama, K., & Uemura, H. (2023) · LUTS Lower Urinary Tract Symptoms · doi:10.1111/luts.12478 · Cited by 11
“The detailed mechanism underlying the higher prevalence of depression in women than in men is unknown, but the involvement of hormones or neurogenesis has been suspected.(16) The mean OABSS increased as the QIDS-J score increased.”
Background
Prevalence of Smartphone Addiction and its Relation with Depression among School-going Adolescents
Sharma, D., Goel, N. K., Sidana, A. K., Kaura, S., & Sehgal, M. (2023) · Indian Journal of Community Health · doi:10.47203/ijch.2023.v35i01.006 · Cited by 16
Longitudinal relationships between self-compassion and depressive symptoms in midlife women
Gavralas, K., Brown, L., & Bryant, C. (2023) · Climacteric · doi:10.1080/13697137.2023.2256651 · Cited by 11
Predictors of time-varying and time-invariant components of psychological distress during COVID-19 in the U.K. Household Longitudinal Study (understanding society).
Schlechter, P., Ford, T. J., McManus, S., & Neufeld, S. (2023) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/pas0001237 · Cited by 11
Identifying a stable and generalizable factor structure of major depressive disorder across three large longitudinal cohorts
Tseng, V. W.-S., Tharp, J. A., Reiter, J. E., Ferrer, W., Hong, D. S., Doraiswamy, P. M., Nickels, S., Schilsky, R. L., Allen, J., Anderson, M. A., et al. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115702 · Cited by 12
“Additionally, we did not explore the relationship between subfactors and gender which could be an important extension of the present findings given that gender differences may be more pronounced in MDD diagnosis rather than symptoms (Salk et al., 2017).”
Refugee health and physiological profiles in transitional settlements in Serbia and Kenya: Comparative evidence for effects of gender and social support
Gettler, L. T., Jankovic‐Rankovic, J., Gengo, R. G., Eick, G. N., Nash, M. P., Arumah, E. N., Boru, A. M., Ali, S. A., Urlacher, S. S., Meyer, J. S., et al. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107024 · Cited by 13
Depression and Personality Traits Across Adolescence—Within-Person Analyses of a Birth Cohort
Morken, I. S., Wichstrøm, L., Steinsbekk, S., & Viddal, K. R. (2024) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-024-01188-8 · Cited by 14
“Importantly, prior research has identified a female preponderance in depression by at least age 12 (Salk et al., 2017), and in early adolescence neuroticism increases in girls and may slightly decrease in boys (e.g., Soto et al., 2011).”
Background
Obesity and diabetes in heart disease in women
Fatade, Y. A., Dave, E. K., Vatsa, N., Crumbs, T., Calhoun, A. E., Sharma, A., SHUFELT, C. L., & Mehta, P. K. (2024) · Metabolism and Target Organ Damage · doi:10.20517/mtod.2023.30 · Cited by 12
The relation between insomnia and depression in the subacute phase after stroke
Geusgens, C. A. V., van Tilburg, D. C. H., Fleischeuer, B., & Bruijel, J. (2024) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2024.2370072 · Cited by 10
“Age and sex show an identified but weak association with post-stroke depression (Essau et al., 2010; Hackett et al., 2005), yet considering their significant impact on insomnia (Sivertsen et al., 2009) and major depressive disorder (Salk et al., 2017), they are included as control measures.”
Major challenges in youth psychopathology: treatment-resistant depression. A narrative review
Menculini, G., Cinesi, G., Scopetta, F., Cardelli, M., Caramanico, G., Balducci, P. M., Giorgi, F. D., Moretti, P., & Tortorella, A. A. V. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1417977 · Cited by 13
“The lifetime prevalence of MDD may reach up to 30% in special populations (2), and is usually higher among women (3).”
Background
Anxiety and depression symptoms among a sample of Khartoum civilians during the 2023 Sudan armed conflict: A cross-sectional study
Ahmed, A. B. M., Yeddi, A. A., Alrawa, S. S. K., & Alfadul, E. S. A. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0307648 · Cited by 11
Sex-specific behavioral, cardiac, and neuroendocrine responses to repeated witness social stress in adult rats.
Barbetti, M., Sgoifo, A., & Carnevali, L. (2024) · Physiology and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2024.114702 · Cited by 14
“The association between stress exposure and disease vulnerability may be sex-biased, as evidenced by a higher lifetime prevalence of depression [3], anxiety [4], and other trauma-related disorders [5] in women compared to men.”
Is early menarche related to depression? A meta-analysis
Jiang, L., Yuan, H., Wang, Y., Chen, Q., Xin, G., Li, P., Hui, Y., Gao, T., Li, Q., & Wang, X.-H. F. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.10.036 · Cited by 11
The association between female sex and depression following traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Sandhu, M. R. S., Schonwald, A., Boyko, M., Jafar, T., Freedman, I. G., Woeste, J., Kurup, A., Funaro, M. C., Zlotnik, A. A., Gruenbaum, S. E., et al. (2024) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105952 · Cited by 12
Predictors of major depressive disorder: need for social approval and self-esteem
Canlı, D., & Karaşar, B. (2020) · Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5455/apd.97683 · Cited by 11
Comorbid alcohol-related problems and suicidality disproportionately impact men and emerging adults among individuals with depressive symptoms
Kelly, L. M., Liu, R. T., & Zajac, K. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.06.043 · Cited by 12
Association of major depressive disorder with chronic diseases and multimorbidity in Brazilian adults, stratified by gender: 2019 National Health Survey
Sousa, N. F. D. S., Barros, M. B. D. A., Medina, L. D. P. B., Malta, D. C., & Szwarcwald, C. L. (2021) · Revista Brasileira de Epidemiologia · doi:10.1590/1980-549720210015.supl.2 · Cited by 14
The experience of receiving a diagnosis of depression in adolescence: A pilot qualitative study in Brazil
Viduani, A., Benetti, S. P. D. C., Petresco, S., Piccin, J., Velazquez, B., Fisher, H. L., Mondelli, V., Kohrt, B. A., & Kieling, C. (2022) · Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13591045211063494 · Cited by 12
“…and were therefore excluded from the analyses is another limitation both in terms of sample size, but also in terms of unbalancing the gender distribution in the opposite direction of what is observed in terms of prevalence estimates of depression in community-based samples (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Post-Concussive Orthostatic Tachycardia is Distinct from Postural Orthostatic Tachycardia Syndrome (POTS) in Children and Adolescents
Pearson, R., Sheridan, C. A., Kang, K., Brown, A., Baham, M., Asarnow, R. F., Giza, C. C., & Choe, M. C. (2022) · Child Neurology Open · doi:10.1177/2329048x221082753 · Cited by 11
Anhedonia reduction correlates with increased ventral caudate connectivity with superior frontal gyrus in depression
Yang, X., Huang, J., Roser, M. E., & Xie, G. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.04.030 · Cited by 11
“It would also be important to stratify by gender in analyses, as there are twice as many females experiencing major depression as males(Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Altered Variability and Concordance of Dynamic Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Indices in Patients With Major Depressive Disorder and Childhood Trauma
Luo, Q., Yu, H., Chen, J., Lin, X., Wu, Z., Yao, J., Li, Y., Wu, H., & Peng, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2022.852799 · Cited by 11
Maternal and adolescent depressive symptoms and family conflict: An autoregressive cross‐lagged examination of competing models in multi‐stressed mothers and adolescents
Lee, D., Cederbaum, J. A., Davis, J. P., Hurlburt, M. S., & Mennen, F. E. (2022) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12779 · Cited by 11
Predicting the gender difference in depressive symptoms in older adults
Ferri, C. V., Yang, K., & Girgus, J. S. (2022) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2022.2084712 · Cited by 12
“This replicates the gender difference consistently found in other samples of older adults (Girgus et al., 2017; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundResult
Distinct trajectories of suicidal behaviors throughout the university stage and associated risk and protective factors: A large-scale prospective study
Shi, X., Jiang, L., Chen, X., & Ya, Z. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.107 · Cited by 14
Predictors of suicide attempt within 30 days of first medically documented major depression diagnosis in U.S. army soldiers with no prior suicidal ideation
Mash, H. B. H., Ursano, R. J., Kessler, R. C., Naifeh, J. A., Fullerton, C. S., Aliaga, P. A., Dinh, H. M., Sampson, N. A., Kao, T., & Stein, M. B. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-04872-z · Cited by 11
“common in women in both civilian [32] and military [33, 34] populations, further examination of psychiatric disorders associated with SA among Army women with various medically-documented diagnoses may clarify this relationship.”
Background
Sex matters: acute functional connectivity changes as markers of remission in late-life depression differ by sex
Wilson, J. D., Gerlach, A., Karim, H. T., Aizenstein, H. J., & Andreescu, C. (2023) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-023-02158-0 · Cited by 10
“It is well established that depression is nearly twice as prevalent in females than males [17], and that symptomatic pro ﬁ les show marked difference between males and females [18, 19].”
Mortality, health-related quality of life, and depression symptoms in younger and older men and women undergoing hemodialysis
da Silva, F. A., Martins, M. T. S., Gutiérrez-Peredo, G. B., Kraychete, A. C., Penalva, C. C., Lopes, M. B., Matos, C. M., & Lopes, A. A. (2023) · The International Journal of Artificial Organs · doi:10.1177/03913988231183724 · Cited by 11
Adolescent positive self, negative self: associated but dissociable?
Ke, T., Wu, J., Willner, C. J., Brown, Z. C., & Crowley, M. J. (2018) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Mental Health · doi:10.2989/17280583.2018.1552590 · Cited by 12
Depressive Symptoms among Economically Disadvantaged African American Older Adults in South Los Angeles
Evans, M. C., Cobb, S., Smith, J., Bazargan, M., & Assari, S. (2019) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci9100246 · Cited by 11
“Research has often found that factors, such as socioeconomic status, gender, and health behaviors, are associated with depression across the general population [4,20,21].”
Background
Severity of idiopathic rapid eye movement sleep behavior disorder correlates with depression and alexithymia
Kim, H. J., Kim, S. J., & Lee, S. (2020) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2020.05.039 · Cited by 11
Comorbid Anxiety and Suicidal Behaviors in American Adolescents With Major Depression
Mathialagan, K., Amuk, Ö. C., Eskander, N., & Patel, R. S. (2020) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.8598 · Cited by 11
“A confluence of hormonal and neurodevelopmental changes that vary by sex during the pubertal transition seems to influence the gender difference in depression [4].”
Background
The emotional dance with depression: A longitudinal investigation of OULA® for depression in women
Hellem, T., Sung, Y., Ferguson, H., & Hildreth, L. A. (2020) · Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies · doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2020.05.007 · Cited by 11
How face masks influence the sinonasal quality of life during the COVID-19 pandemic
Primov‐Fever, A., Amir, O., Roziner, I., Segal, R. M., Alon, E. E., & Yakirevitch, A. (2021) · European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology · doi:10.1007/s00405-021-06752-2 · Cited by 11
“The latter statement could also explain the strong correlation between sinonasal QoL and background of chronic rhinitis and sinusitis and the association between the psychologic disorder outcome variable and younger age [18, 23].”
Background
Mental Health Across the Life Course for Men and Women in Married, Cohabiting, and Living Apart Together Relationships
Yücel, D., & Latshaw, B. A. (2022) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x211068038 · Cited by 11
“Our findings are, however, consistent with a great deal of prior literature, including meta-analyses, finding higher levels of mental distress among women than men (see, e.g., Salk et al., 2017).”
Result
A Comprehensive Assessment of Qualitative and Quantitative Prodromal Parkinsonian Features in Carriers of Gaucher Disease—Identifying Those at the Greatest Risk
Becker‐Cohen, M., Zimran, A., Dinur, T., Tiomkin, M., Cozma, C., Rolfs, A., Arkadir, D., Shulman, E., Manor, O., Paltiel, O., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms232012211 · Cited by 11
Examining a window of vulnerability for affective symptoms in the mid-luteal phase of the menstrual cycle
Guevarra, D. A., Louis, C. C., Gloe, L. M., Block, S. R., Kashy, D. A., Klump, K. L., & Moser, J. S. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105958 · Cited by 10
“Affective disorders are more prevalent in females2 than males (McLean et al., 2011; Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Sex, defense, and risk assessment: Who could ask for anything more?
Blanchard, D. C. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104931 · Cited by 11
Factors Associated With Utilization of Electroconvulsive Therapy During Psychiatric Hospitalization Among Children and Adolescents in China
Geng, F., Wang, S., Tian, Y., et al. (2023) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000898 · Cited by 11
Characteristics Associated with Depression Severity in 270 Juveniles in a Major Depressive Episode
Serra, G., Iannoni, M. E., Trasolini, M., Maglio, G., Frattini, C., Casini, M. P., Baldessarini, R. J., & Vicari, S. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11040440 · Cited by 11
“It is well established that depression is about twice as prevalent among women than men [29,30].”
BackgroundResult
Depression and Loneliness Among the Elderly Poor
Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Grela, E., McKelway, M., Schilbach, F., Sharma, G., & Vaidyanathan, G. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w30330 · Cited by 10
Persistence of Anxiety/Depression Symptoms in Early Adolescence: A Prospective Study of Daily Life Stress, Rumination, and Daytime Sleepiness in a Genetically Informative Cohort
Hansell, N. K., Strike, L. T., de Zubicaray, G. I., Thompson, P. M., McMahon, K. L., & Wright, M. J. (2022) · Twin Research and Human Genetics · doi:10.1017/thg.2022.26 · Cited by 9
“Symptoms of anxiety and/or depression are higher in females than males (Altemus et al., 2014; Salk et al., 2017) and increase with: age across adolescence (Salk et al., 2017), advancing pubertal development (Altemus et al., 2014; Stumper & Alloy, 2021), and socioeconomic disadvantage (Peverill et…”
Influential
FMRI study of implicit emotional face processing in patients with MDD with melancholic subtype
Kustubayeva, A., Eliassen, J. C., Matthews, G., & Nelson, E. B. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1029789 · Cited by 10
“The adverse impacts of the disorder are experienced disproportionately by women, for whom the prevalence of depression is approximately twice as high than in men (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Endometriosis in the time of internet: how web navigation affects women with endometriosis
Arena, A., Esposti, E. D., Orsini, B., Moro, E., Forno, S. D., Cocchi, L., Altieri, M., Casadio, P., & Seracchioli, R. (2023) · Annals of Medicine · doi:10.1080/07853890.2023.2215537 · Cited by 10
“depression rates compared to healthy controls [7,18,19].”
Multimorbidity patterns in the working age population with the top 10% medical cost from exhaustive insurance claims data of Japan Health Insurance Association
Nishida, Y., Anzai, T., Takahashi, K., Kozuma, T., Kanda, E., Yamauchi, K., & Katsukawa, F. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0291554 · Cited by 12
“One of these sex-specific classes included younger women (33 [29, 37] years) who received perinatal care, and the other classes consisted of patients with multimorbidity.”
BackgroundInfluential
Age-Dependent Sex Differences in the Prevalence of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor Treatment: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis
Sánchez-Ruiz, J. A., Leibman, N. I., Larson, N. B., Jenkins, G. D., Ahmed, A. T., Núñez, N. A., Biernacka, J. M., Winham, S. J., Weinshilboum, R. M., Wang, L., et al. (2023) · Journal of Women s Health · doi:10.1089/jwh.2022.0484 · Cited by 12
“21 Despite MDD being the primary indication for antidepressants and women having twice the risk of MDD than men do, 22 the myriad conditions for which antidepressants are used suggest that such sex disparities may not be solely explained by the different rates of MDD between sexes, or even just…”
Frequency of depression and correlates among Chinese children and adolescents living in poor areas under the background of targeted poverty alleviation: results of a survey in Weining county
Yuan, X., Hu, T., Zhu, X., Dong, S., Wang, G., Xu, C., & Zhou, J. (2023) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-023-05334-2 · Cited by 11
“It has been often reported that females have a higher prevalence of depressive symptoms than males during adolescence, which was one of the best-replicated findings in the study focused on depression [27].”
Result
Individual Differences in Volitional Social Self-Administration and Motivation in Male and Female Mice Following Social Stress
Navarrete, J. S., Schneider, K. N., Smith, B. M., Goodwin, N. L., Zhang, Y. Y., Salazar, A. S., Gonzalez, Y. E., Anumolu, P., Gross, E., Tsai, V. S., et al. (2024) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.01.007 · Cited by 12
From classroom to life: Gender differences in the persistent effect of learning disabilities on adult depressive symptoms
Rim, H., Son, H., & Kim, J. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116886 · Cited by 10
Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose–Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies
Hajhashemy, Z., Shirani, F., & Askari, G. (2024) · Nutrition Reviews · doi:10.1093/nutrit/nuae056 · Cited by 12
Adolescent depressive symptoms and memory performance in young adulthood: Testing critical period, accumulation, and pathway models using a sibling comparison design
Kim, J., Park, G., & Jang, H. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117328 · Cited by 10
Patterns of Alcohol, Cannabis, and E-Cigarette Use/Co-Use and Mental Health Among U.S. College Students
Lui, C. K., Jacobs, W., & Yang, J. S. (2024) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2024.2409723 · Cited by 10
“…anxiety and depression at much higher rates than men and experience different protective and risk factors (Bangasser and Cuarenta, 2021; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000; Platt et al., 2021; Salk et al., 2017), highlighting the importance of distinguishing by sex in studies of mental health.”
Adolescent Health in Lebanon: Exploring Alcohol Use, Dietary Patterns, Mental Health, Physical Activity, and Smoking Using the Global School-Based Student Health Survey Approach
Hoteit, M., Hallit, S. R., Rawas, H. A., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16213590 · Cited by 10
Online Self-Presentation, Self-Concept Clarity, and Depressive Symptoms: A Within-Person Examination
Wong, T. K. Y., & Hamza, C. A. (2024) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-024-02109-0 · Cited by 16
“Additionally, females are more likely to report depressive symptoms and major depression compared to males, although such gender difference seem to decline in adulthood (Salk et al., 2017).”
Cyber-Ostracism, Depression, and Adolescents’ Cyberbullying Perpetration: A Cross-Lagged Panel Analysis
Ding, H., Zhao, C., Huang, F., Zhu, L., Wei, H., & Lei, L. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x241301062 · Cited by 11
“Studies have consistently found that females are more susceptible to depression than males (Cruz et al., 2014; Lu et al., 2021), and this tendency is particularly pronounced during adolescence, as indicated by a meta-analysis spanning data from over 90 nations (Salk et al., 2017).”
Association of dietary inflammatory index and systemic inflammatory markers with mortality risk in depressed adults: a mediation analysis of NHANES data
Tang, M., Chang, X., Zheng, H., Zeng, F., Zhang, G., He, M., Fang, Q., & Yin, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Nutrition · doi:10.3389/fnut.2024.1472616 · Cited by 9
Association of TyG Index and TG/HDL-C Ratio with Trajectories of Depressive Symptoms: Evidence from China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study
Guo, T., Zou, Q., Wang, Q., Zhang, Y., Zhong, X., Lin, H., Gong, W., Wang, Y., Xie, K., Wu, K., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu16244300 · Cited by 11
Adolescent social isolation induces sex-specific behavioral and neural alterations
Albanese, N. C., Poggini, S., Reccagni, A., Barezzi, C., Salciccia, C., Poleggi, A., & Branchi, I. (2024) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2024.107264 · Cited by 10
Network structure of sleep quality and its bridging association with anhedonia in adolescent major depression disorder
Wang, X., Ren, L., Zhao, X., Shi, Y., Li, J., Yu, H., Yu, H., Lv, R., Liu, N., Wu, X., et al. (2025) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2025.114833 · Cited by 11
Rates of Depression in Children and Adolescents With ADHD: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Wang, S., Stewart, T. M., Ozen, I., Mukherjee, A., & Rhodes, S. (2025) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/10870547251341597 · Cited by 14
“…have shown that female adolescents and adults with ADHD have a significantly higher depression incidence compared to their male counterparts (e.g., Rucklidge, 2008; Solberg et al., 2018), consistent with findings observed in neuro-typical populations (e.g., Salk et al., 2017; Shorey et al., 2022).”
Adolescents' Perceptions of Gendered Influences on Mental Health: Results From a 13-Country Qualitative Study
Fine, S. L., Harrison, A. D., Rykiel, N. A., & Herrera, M. M. (2025) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.02.036 · Cited by 12
Family violence as a determinant of suicidality and depression among adolescents in India
Bhan, N., Jose, R., Silverman, J. G., & Raj, A. (2019) · Journal of Global Health Reports · doi:10.29392/joghr.3.e2019072 · Cited by 11
“This discordant finding might be due to gender differences in depression (32, 33), mental illness stigma (34), and societal expectations that boys should not be emotional (29, 30).”
Background
Confirming diagnostic categories within a depression continuum: Testing extra-linearity of risk factors and a latent class analysis
Coid, J., Zhang, Y., Yu, H., Li, X., Tang, W., Wang, Q., Deng, W., Guo, W., Zhao, L., Ma, X., et al. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.010 · Cited by 11
Beyond WEIRD: Associations between socioeconomic status, gender, lifetime stress exposure, and depression in Madagascar
Foubert, L., Noël, Y., Spahr, C. M., & Slavich, G. M. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.23131 · Cited by 12
“The most frequently cited ratio is 2:1, with women being twice as likely to experience depression relative to men following the pubertal transition (Hammen, 2003; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Deconstructing “Risk” in Youth Mentoring Programs: How Environmental Stressors and Presenting Challenges Shape Mentoring Relationship Outcomes
Poon, C. Y. S., Herrera, C., Jarjoura, R., McQuillin, S. D., Keller, T. E., & Rhodes, J. E. (2022) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316221078833 · Cited by 10
“This is not surprising, as male adolescents tend to exhibit higher levels of externalizing behaviors than girls (Deater-Deckard et al., 1998), whereas female adolescents tend to show more symptoms of depression than their male counterparts (Salk et al., 2017; Wade et al., 2002).”
Background
Depressive Disorders
(2022) · American Psychiatric Association Publishing eBooks · doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425787.x04_depressive_disorders · Cited by 17
In their own words: Finding meaning in girls' experiences of puberty
Koch, M. K., & Mendle, J. (2022) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13836 · Cited by 13
Incidence and risk factors of suicide among patients with pancreatic cancer: A population-based analysis from 2000 to 2018
Ma, Y., Lyu, J., Yang, B., Yan, T., Ma, Q., Wu, Z., Wang, Z., & He, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Oncology · doi:10.3389/fonc.2022.972908 · Cited by 10
L-Serine Influences Epigenetic Modifications to Improve Cognition and Behaviors in Growth Hormone-Releasing Hormone Knockout Mice
Zhang, F., Icyuz, M., Tollefsbol, T. O., Cox, P. A., Banack, S. A., & Sun, L. Y. (2022) · Biomedicines · doi:10.3390/biomedicines11010104 · Cited by 9
“Clinic studies report that anxiety disorders at early ages are more common in girls than boys, suggesting sex dependence in anxiety [58].”
Background
Sex differences in subjective cognitive impairment and clinical correlates in Chinese patients with subthreshold depression
Lv, Q., Li, X., Zhang, Y., Lu, D., Lu, J., Xie, Q., Li, H., Wu, Y., Wang, C., & Yi, Z. (2023) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-023-00488-w · Cited by 11
“Even though SD is characterized by less severe symptoms than MDD, its health service utilization is greater than MDD on a population basis.”
ResultInfluential
Neurodevelopmental and other psychiatric disorders in 22q11.2 deletion syndrome from childhood to adult age: Prospective longitudinal study of 100 individuals
Wallin, L., Gillberg, C., Fernell, E., Gillberg, C. I., & Billstedt, E. (2023) · American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C Seminars in Medical Genetics · doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.32052 · Cited by 10
“chiatric field, where almost twice as many women as men were diagnosed with a depressive disorder (Salk et al., 2017).”
Background
Calprotectin, Biomarker of Depression in Patients with Inflammatory Bowel Disease?
Iordache, M. M., Belu, A. M., Vlad, S. E., Aivaz, K.-A., Dumitru, A., Tocia, C., & Dumitru, E. (2023) · Medicina · doi:10.3390/medicina59071240 · Cited by 11
“According to the meta-analyses conducted by Platt and Salk, women are predominantly affected by depression [35,36].”
Method
Associations between insomnia symptom trajectories with depression and self-harm behaviors in Chinese college students before and during the COVID-19 pandemic: A five-wave longitudinal investigation
Qiao, X., Shi, X., Chen, X., & Ya, Z. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.108 · Cited by 10
Effect of gender on the association between cumulative cardiovascular risk factors and depression: results from the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
Li, S., Jia, Z., Zhang, Z., Li, Y., Ding, Y., Qin, Z., & Guo, S. (2023) · General Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/gpsych-2023-101063 · Cited by 10
The neural basis underlying female vulnerability to depressive disorders
Kim, M., Kim, W., & Chung, C. (2023) · Animal Cells and Systems · doi:10.1080/19768354.2023.2276815 · Cited by 13
“Since the ﬁ rst study to shed light on sex di ﬀ erences in depression (Weissman and Klerman 1977), it has consistently been reported that women su ﬀ er from depressive disorders more than men (Angst et al. 2002; Romans et al. 2007; Salk et al. 2017; Hasin et al. 2018; Hapke et al. 2019).”
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“Meta-analyses of representative national samples indicate that women are twice more likely to suffer from depression than men (Salk et al., 2017).”
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“Major Depressive Disorder (MDD), a leading cause of disability and ill-health worldwide (Friedrich, 2017), is approximately twice more prevalent in women than men (Kessler and Bromet, 2013; Salk et al., 2017).”
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“This is consistent with previous results (Salk et al., 2017).”
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Authors: Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y.
Affiliations: University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
ORCID: Salk, Rachel H.
Hyde, Janet S.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2017-08
Volume: 143
Issue: 8
Pages: 783-822
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000102
PMC: PMC5532074
OpenAlex: W2609632515
Cited by: 2,622
References: 276
Citations by year: 2026: 352 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 403 · 2023: 354 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 261 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 8
FWCI: 153.86
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: hybrid
doi.org
Licence: other-oa
www.apa.org/pubs/journals/resources/open-access.aspx (am, 269 d)
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (DGE-071823; DRL 1138114)
National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH018269-30)
University of Wisconsin-Madison
Topics: Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: gender differences, depression, depressive symptoms, adolescence, lifespan development, gender equity, cross-national comparison, health disparities, men's mental health
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Young Adult

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Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms

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