The DOI matches its Crossref record; 272 of the 276 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 92 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms
Open accessAbstract
In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
13 of 92 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“odds ratios (ORs, female/male) for 12-month major depressive episode (MDE1) ranged from 1.2 to 2.7 across 18 countries and 89,037 participants”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results table of sociodemographic associations reports a female-to-male odds ratio of 1.2 for 12-month MDE in China, and the Sociodemographic factors text reports 2.7 in Spain. Methods > Sampling and procedure states that the study included 18 countries and 89,037 participants. The 1.2 estimate was not statistically significant, but the claim does not say that every odds ratio was significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited findings in adulthood are inconsistent with respect to both the magnitude and direction of the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Angst et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mirowsky, 1996 source
- Partly supportedcites Oksuzyan et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Depression) and Discussion describe variation by country and age, including a slight reversal in Japan that was not statistically significant. But the paper studies middle and older ages, not adulthood broadly, and its Discussion says the literature generally finds higher depression prevalence in women from young adulthood through early old age. It does not support characterizing the limited findings across adulthood as inconsistent in direction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Barnes et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section (‘Tests of interaction in NESARC data’; page unavailable) reports a non-significant race × sex interaction (P = 0.89), consistent with no detected Black–White variation in the sex difference in lifetime major depression. The study tests Black and White respondents, not ethnicity broadly, and says it lacked sufficient power to test the interaction for 12-month depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Oquendo et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This absence of any substantial effect for nation-level wealth is consistent with other research (Bromet et al., 2011) indicating that economic development is not a major factor in cross-national variations in the magnitude of gender differences in depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) report that the association between gender and major depressive episode did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). This supports the claim as an interpretation of the paper's income-group comparison, rather than proof that economic development has no effect. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13–15, and d = 0.47 for age 16)”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Age was the strongest predictor of effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 72
- It may state two separate claims as one. 101
- Borderline: one of the tests for a substantial claim is unclear. 1
- Not yet classified. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A study including 18 countries from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys (Kessler & Usten, 2008) reported that the relationship between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) analyze 12-month MDE across 18 countries and explicitly report that the association between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). (LLM, conf=0.95)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, findings also suggest that the 2:1 ratio is not universal and may vary substantially across nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors; page unavailable) report that women were twice as likely as men to have a major depressive episode on average, but country-specific odds ratios varied. The difference was not statistically significant in three of the 18 countries, supporting the hedged claim that the 2:1 ratio is not universal. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the vast majority of epidemiological reports on adults, women have higher rates of major depression compared to men; on average, the ratio is 2:1”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrade et al., 2003 source
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Background states that almost all studies find an association between gender and depression and that women have a twofold increased risk of major depressive episode. The Results (Sociodemographic factors) likewise report that women were, on average, twice as likely as men to have an episode across the countries studied. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Other widely held beliefs about gender differences, such as the gender difference in math performance, have sometimes been found to be inaccurate when the data are meta-analyzed”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Lindberg et al., 2010 source
The Abstract reports that a meta-analysis of 242 studies found no overall gender difference in mathematics performance (d = .05). The Gender and Mathematics Performance section says stereotypes of female inferiority contrast with the performance data, supporting the claim that meta-analysis has found this widely held belief inaccurate. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“there is increased recognition of the validity (e.g., Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011) and value (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) of dimensional assessments, as well as the impairment associated with sub-threshold levels of symptoms that do not meet diagnostic criteria.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Markon et al., 2011 source
- Supportedcites Cuthbert & Insel, 2013 source
The citation is attached specifically to the value of dimensional assessments, not to their validity or the separate statement about impairment from sub-threshold symptoms. In “The seven pillars,” the paper endorses a dimensional approach and explains its value for studying mild psychopathology and informing intervention cut-points. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007 source
- Partly supportedcites Van de Velde et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports the conflicting finding that Hopcroft and Bradley found a larger depression gender gap in high-equality countries, while this paper's results were more consistent with equality reducing women's disadvantage. But the Results say the overall interaction between gender and equality was not significant; a smaller gap at higher equality appeared only in certain subgroups and for certain measures. The sentence overstates this paper's finding as a general cross-country result. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Seedat and colleagues (2009) found a significant narrowing in the gender difference in depression in recent cohorts.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Seedat et al., 2009 source
The Abstract states that gender differences narrowed significantly in recent cohorts for major depressive disorder. The COMMENT section likewise reports significantly smaller gender differences in major depression in more recent cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One latent growth curve analysis indicated that girls’ depression symptoms accelerated early in adolescence and then leveled off, whereas boys’ symptom levels accelerated in late adolescence (Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016), consistent with the first possibility above.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016 source
The Results section’s latent growth curve analysis says girls’ depression scores increased and then leveled off, while boys’ scores were initially low and increased more rapidly at later ages. The Discussion likewise describes girls’ symptoms accelerating early in adolescence and boys’ symptoms accelerating later. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“On the face of it, greater contraceptive prevalence should indicate women’s greater control over reproduction and a lower rate of unwanted pregnancies, which are a risk factor for depression (e.g., Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (Main Findings) reports that women with unwanted pregnancies had a higher risk of postpartum depression than women with intended pregnancies. The claim says “depression” without limiting it to the postpartum period; the paper also cautions in the Discussion (Interpretation) that it cannot establish a causal relationship. The contraceptive-prevalence premise appears to be the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, U.S. ethnicity did not account for significant variation in effect size (see Table 4).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear? Based: unclearBorderline substantial claim. It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it. It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but then declined and remained stable in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 112 articles from the original search met criteria for inclusion, including articles for which authors needed to be contacted for data. We added 46 new articles that were not in the original search from additional searching for nationally representative datasets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up testing with pairs of consecutive age groups indicated that the effect sizes for ages 8–12 (0.09), 13–15 (0.35), and 16–19 (0.41) were statistically different (QB = 23.01 and QB = 8.06, ps< .01, respectively), such that the effect size for each consecutively age group was significantly larger than the previous age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The depression symptom meta-analysis covers data collected from 1978–2014 whereas the major depression meta-analysis only includes data collected from 1991–2014.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from OR = 1.71 to OR = 3.02, with ORs >2.0 during adolescence and ORs between 1.71 and 2.02 in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the major depression meta-analysis, all articles reported DSM major depression diagnoses or episodes (96%) or the roughly equivalent ICD-10 depressive episode (4%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.07.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the youngest age group available for these analyses was 12 years old, making it impossible to observe the emergence of the gender difference from childhood to adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when outliers were removed, the effect became marginally significant (QB = 3.09, p = 0.08) with smaller gender differences in high-income nations (d = 0.26) compared to low- to middle- income nations (d = 0.29).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.02.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the LRT showed a marginal effect for the major depression meta-analysis, the weighted average from the unadjusted model (logged OR = 0.67) and the adjusted model (logged OR = 0.62) were quite similar.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1991 to 2016 and yielded data from 1978–2014 collected from 53 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“utilized data comprising 180 samples, 413 effect sizes, and 1,922,064 people (52% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,922,064Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They both include mostly high-income countries and cover the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The OR at ages 16–19 (2.69) was significantly larger than the OR for ages 20–29 (1.93), QB = 43.19, p < .001, indicating a significant decrease in the gender difference from adolescence to the 20s.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Removal of outliers did not change the estimates of effect sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The likelihood ratio tests (LRT) comparing the unadjusted to adjusted models (using p-value cut points of 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001) for the major depression and depression symptom meta-analyses, respectively, were not statistically significant, p = 0.073 and p = 0.3226.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was not a range restriction for the literacy variable (ratios ranged from .31 to 1.07), which can have substantial negative skew (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence and literacy ratio both predicted variability in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, they differ in terms of the distribution of nations and year of data collection.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the symptom meta-analysis, most effect sizes were based on the C ES-D measure.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in follow-up analyses, effect sizes from articles that focused on gender were not significantly different than effect sizes from articles that focused on depression (QB = 2.22, p = 0.14) or something other than gender or depression (QB = 0.91, p =0.34).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1993 to 2016 with data from 1991–2014 collected in 75 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“provided data comprising 149 samples (this number includes different countries from the same international dataset as well as different years of data collection for cross-sectional national datasets), 300 effect sizes (this number includes separate effect sizes for different age groups and ethnicities), and 1,716,195 people (53% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,716,195Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vast majority of effect sizes for the major depression meta-analysis were 12-month major depressive episodes based on the DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR using a version of the CIDI.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When outliers were excluded, the age 13–15 OR decreased from 3.02 to 2.92 and the age 70+ OR increased from 2.02 to 2.20.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the depression symptom meta-analysis includes the most effect sizes from Europe (53%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from d = 0.09 to d = 0.41, peaking at ages 16–19, declining in the 20s, and staying relatively stable at roughly d = 0.20 after that.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The final sample of studies (see Figure 1) for the meta-analyses included data from 65 (diagnosis meta-analysis) and 95 (symptom meta-analysis) articles and their corresponding data sets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Income inequality was a significant predictor of effect size, such that larger gender differences were reported in nations with low levels of income inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 4, manual for major depression (e.g., DSM-IV, ICD-10), type of depression (episode versus disorder) and depression time span (1 month, 6 months, 12 months, and lifetime) did not predict effect size variation.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both meta-analyses, the effect size peaked in adolescence but then declined and remained stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
“Our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms peaks in adolescence, with the gender gap in diagnoses emerging earlier than previously thought (OR = 2.37 at age 12). The gender gap then narrows and remains stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously and has important implications for both theory and”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, the gender difference declined in early adulthood and then remained relatively stable, hovering between OR = 1.71 – 2.02 and d = 0.19 – 0.30.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Expressed in the Cohen’s d metric, the two effect sizes are similar: d = 0.37 for major depression and d = 0.27 for depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds ratio for the 13–15 age group in our meta-analysis was already 3.02 and declined, not widened, to OR = 2.69 for ages 16–19.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To better understand this pattern, we created a categorical variable for year of data collection and obtained the following effect size estimates: 1991–1996= 1.84, k = 22; 1997–2002= 1.88, k = 134; 2003–2008= 1.91, k = 59; 2009–2014 = 2.17, k = 85.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the major depression meta-analysis, we could not examine the emergence of the gender difference given that the youngest age in the studies was 12, when the OR was already 2.37.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, among different subgroups, all odds ratios for diagnoses were > 1.0, and all effect sizes for symptoms were positive.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence, executive positions, and the literacy ratio did not predict variation in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow up analyses, excluding outliers, indicated that diagnoses using the ICD were significantly smaller than both diagnoses using DSM-IV/DSM-IV-TR (QB = 6.86, p < .01) and DSM-III/ DSM- III-R TR (QB = 9.60, p < .01).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the symptom meta-analysis, the gender difference emerged in adolescence with a trivial gender difference for ages 8–11 (see Figure 3) and then a steep increase, reaching a peak in the gender difference at age 16.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In follow-up tests, all pair-wise comparisons were significantly different from each other, such that the smallest effect size was for the BDI (d = 0.20) and the largest effect size was for scales other than the BDI and CES-D (d = 0.31).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was no relation to the gender effect size for diagnoses; it was negatively related for symptom measures but lost significance when outliers were excluded.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both the diagnosis and symptom meta-analyses, differences among ethnic groups were not significant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The symptom meta-analysis found no significant trend over time and the diagnosis meta-analysis found a positive trend, meaning that gender differences are growing larger.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings of larger gender differences in nations with greater gender equity did not replicate with the meta-analysis of depression symptoms, suggesting that caution is needed in interpreting the findings for diagnoses.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it was limited to the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) scale and samples of 8- to 16-year-old participants in the United States and Canada (n = 43,916).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not matchedcites Kovacs, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The theory predicts that larger gender differences should be observed in nations with more gender inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the theory, a society’s division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Theories of developmental psychopathology contend that there are multiple pathways to the gender difference in depression involving combinations and interactions of risk factors that span multiple levels of analysis”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“there is no gender difference or even a somewhat higher prevalence of depression among boys than girls in childhood”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Avenevoli et al., 2008
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To the extent that women report higher rates of violent victimization, this may contribute to the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Koss et al., 1994 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“gender inequality is linked to discrimination against women, which may contribute to the gender difference”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Belle & Doucet, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theories highlight how specific vulnerability factors come on-line at critical developmental periods in adolescence and/or interact with stressors in adolescence to produce the gender difference in adolescence”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents and adults with subthreshold depression symptoms and minor depression still experience significant impairment (e.g., Lewinsohn, Solomon, Seeley, & Zeiss, 2000) and are at elevated risk for later development of major depression and suicidal behaviors”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The extant literature indicates that the prevalence of major depression in the United States varies both by gender and by ethnicity”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“One recent narrative review concluded that internalizing problems for girls increased from the late 20th century to the 21st century”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bor et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“we follow MARS reporting standards”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites American Psychological Association Publications and Communications Board, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If a particular sample of participants was used in more than one article, which was often the case with these national datasets, to maintain independence of samples, we selected the article that had the most complete data (including information on moderator variables such as age and ethnicity) and/or the largest sample size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For nationally representative longitudinal studies with multiple waves of data (e.g., Add Health), we included only one wave of data to maintain independence of samples.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“type of depression diagnosis (depressive episode versus depressive disorder), κ = .87; and (4) the time span for the depression diagnosis (current, 1 month, 6 months, 12 months, lifetime), κ = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, all datasets were nationally representative, indicating that any bias in sampling is minimized.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression diagnoses, we received data from authors for 24 (37%) of the 65 articles, such that 167 (56%) of the 300 effect sizes were based on obtained rather than published data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although they were theoretically interesting, the intimate-partner violence and sexism ideals measures proved unsatisfactory because they were available for only a minority of the effect sizes in analyses. Those two measures are therefore not considered further.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Gender Equity Indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data were entered in the calculator by two individuals to ensure accuracy.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we coded the focus of the article (gender, depression, other), κ = .84.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They argued that the strongest scientific evidence about gender differences does not come from small studies of convenience samples, but instead comes from larger studies based on representative samples of populations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Nowell, 1995 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We included abstracts that explicitly mentioned “nationally representative.””
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the type of measure used to assess depression diagnoses (diagnostic interview; e.g., CIDI, DIS) or depression symptoms (self-report measure; e.g., CES-D, BDI), κ = 1.0; (2) the manual used to diagnose depression (DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR5; DSM-III or DSM-III-R; or ICD-10), κ = 1.0”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression symptoms, we received data from authors for 71 (75%) of the 95 articles, such that 357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“age of the participants (measured on a continuous scale, using the reported mean or the midpoint of the age range), r = .99”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“country, κ (kappa) = 1.00”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“predominant (≥ 85%) ethnic group of participants (Caucasian, African American, Asian American, Hispanic, Native American, other, mixed, or unreported), κ = 1.00; and (d) year of data collection, r = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
In the paper
“a meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem found a small difference favoring Caucasian males over Caucasian females, d = 0.20, but no gender difference for African American samples, d = −0.04”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kling et al., 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all authors of the study for whom we could find email addresses from the article, the Web directory of the authors’ academic institution, or a Google search, were contacted.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded if their measurement of depression symptoms did not meet the following criteria: 1) minimum of 3 items; 2) self-report; 3) Cronbach’s alpha ≥.70 (if provided); and 4) valid and reliable measure of depression based on previously published research”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we excluded studies that were not based on national probability sampling. In other words, we included only population-based surveys representative of the country.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We double coded 30 studies to compute interrater agreement.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each of the economic and gender equity indicators, data are not available for all nations. Therefore, sample sizes vary in regression analyses, depending on the indicator.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Economic Indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Raw effect sizes were corrected for bias (i.e., the upward-bias of effect sizes among small samples; Hedges, 1981); however, most correction factors were close to 1.0 given the large sample sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges, 1981 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that most studies were published on the basis of the work on depression and not on the basis of a gender difference, so publication bias in the direction of gender differences should not be a problem.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded in the processing of articles if their measurement of depression diagnoses did not include a diagnostic interview with the participant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All analyses were run with the full data set and then re-run excluding outliers.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Data-Analytic Plan
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is that stressors attached to these transitions are spread out more evenly across adulthood, leading to more even rates of depression across age for both women and men, and a stable gender gap.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the range of OR = 1.84 to 2.17 is not great, the positive relationship is clear.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in depression emerges earlier than previously thought (by at least age 12 for diagnoses, at age 12 for symptoms), which has important implications for the timing of preventive interventions.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These results differ from those of Hankin and colleagues (1998), who found that that the gender gap in major depression emerged between ages 13 and 15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hankin and colleagues (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern is a new finding and should be robust because it is based on large-scale meta-analyses and was consistent across both diagnosis and symptom measures.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, individuals who are high in negative affectivity and low on positive affectivity are vulnerable to later depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to this model, the gender difference in depression in adolescence may be accounted for by (a) higher levels of negative cognitive style in girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; (b) higher levels of stress for girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; or (c) both.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This emphasizes the consistency with which females have higher levels major depression and depression symptoms than males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, early puberty is disadvantageous for girls but not boys, for outcomes such as depression (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference in findings may be due to the greater recency of many of our studies, the greater number of nations, or the inclusion of multiple measures of depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A third possibility results from the observation that depression is a recurrent disorder (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Men may be less likely to develop depression than women; however, this does not mean that depressed men are not distressed and impaired.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, gender equity measures were missing for some nations; thus, the analyses did not capture patterns among all nations included.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, temperament, present from infancy and early childhood, predicts later depression (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in the 21st century women constitute 47% of the U.S. labor force, compared to 30% in 1950 (Costello et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Costello et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Research suggests that negative cognitive style may not emerge as a stable trait until ages 9.5 to 12.5, and the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction does not become a reliable predictor of depression until ages 13.5 to 14.5, i.e., in early adolescence (Cole et al., 2008).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole et al., 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the gender difference in depression is created at least in part by girls who go through puberty early, because of any of several processes, such as early-puberty girls encountering more peer sexual harassment than boys and on-time girls (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, the typical assessment of symptoms often represents a short period of time, such as a week, whereas diagnoses involve aggregation over longer periods, often a year (Haeffel et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haeffel et al., 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As such, it may be that most first cases of depression occur in adolescence, and then recur at variable times in adulthood, as a result of the uneven timing of major stressors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted earlier, theories guided by developmental psychopathology have focused on explaining the emergence of the gender difference in adolescence (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b), but did not attend to development across adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An OR of 1.95 is a medium, not a large, effect size, yet it is still a health disparity.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another theoretical account rests on cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression, which have been well supported in samples of college students and adults (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, prevalence would remain stable across adulthood for both women and men, leading to a stable gender gap, created by the original gender gap in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given that depression is a global health priority (World Health Organization, 2016), it is imperative to understand disparities in depression and which subgroups are most in need of services.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites World Health Organization, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, assuming equal numbers of males and females, an OR = 2.0 can result from a 9.05% prevalence in females and a 4.85% prevalence in males, or from an 18% prevalence in females and a 10.1% prevalence in males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results indicated high agreement between the two; for major depressive disorder, kappa = 0.97, with 99.7% agreement between the two sources (see also Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also made extensive efforts to obtain data for as many national data sets as possible by conducting additional computerized searches and contacting authors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, mounting a study based on a nationally representative sample is a major, costly undertaking that should almost certainly result in multiple publications, at least one of them in English, so we should have detected such studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, perhaps counterintuitively, gender differences were larger in nations with more gender equity, a finding that was consistent across three indicators.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, focusing on large, nationally representative datasets meant that the diagnostic interviews for major depression were conducted not by skilled clinicians, but instead by trained lay interviewers, as is standard practice in these large-scale, epidemiological studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, both diagnostic measures and symptom questionnaire measures rely on self-reports from participants.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Guimond and colleagues (2007) proposed that gender differences in self-construals are larger in contexts in which individuals make intergroup social comparisons, e.g., when they compare themselves to an out-group such as the other gender.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Guimond and colleagues (2007)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that women are at significantly greater risk of depression diagnoses and symptoms compared to men worldwide, and that adolescent girls are at the greatest risk.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is precisely in higher gender-equity nations, where males and females interact more (e.g., girls are more literate because they have more equal access to schooling with boys), that intergroup comparisons are likelier, leading to larger gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourth, our database search included only articles in English.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses, however, were based on small numbers of studies. Therefore, power to detect ethnic-group differences was limited.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In low-gender-equity nations, intergroup interactions are often greatly restricted, and gender differences on a variable such as depression are smaller due to mostly intragroup comparisons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, we did not have sufficient data to examine gender differences in major depression for children younger than age 12 (and we had only 2 samples for age 12), even though the minimum age criterion was 7.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If there are gender differences in willingness to disclose symptoms, then the resulting data may be biased.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the difference between these odds ratios is small, and the 95% confidence intervals overlap, suggesting that this difference is not a major effect.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One early review concluded that the gender difference in depression is a real difference and not a measurement artifact (Weissman & Klerman, 1977).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Weissman & Klerman, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that this did not lead to the omission of nations in which English is not the predominant language for two reasons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The emphasis on adolescents is particularly important because depression is a recurring disorder, so an episode in adolescence can predispose the individual to later episodes (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in depression represents a major health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in males should not be overlooked.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Not yet classified.
The paper relies on this without support.
The existing literature on gender differences in depression had not been meta-analytically synthesized before this study.
“this large body of sometimes inconsistent research has yet to be synthesized meta-analytically.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
“We selected domain-specific indicators of gender equity (rather than composite indicators) that should, theoretically, be tied to gender differences in depression”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mixed-effects model used for moderator analyses assumes that variability among effect sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (error variance).
“The mixed-effects model assumes that variability among effects sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (i.e., error variance).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
“For major depression diagnoses, variability in the gender difference in depression was linked to measures of national wealth and gender equity.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Women are more likely than males to experience recurring MDD 445 and are twice as likely to experience MDD throughout their lifetimes. 446”
From Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment (2024) · cites this paper as [446]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“and the risk of certain mental health problems such as depression, self-harm, and eating disorders is higher in adolescent females than in males27.”
From Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media (2022) · cites this paper as [27]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Considering studies from only the old analyses, we found that females have more symptoms, diagnoses, or feelings of depression in countries with higher living conditions (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As has often been reported, females have in most studies been found to have higher rates of Depression (SMDs = 0.19–0.38; Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Given the well-established associations of sex and sedentary screen time with depression symptoms, 43,44”
From Associations of time spent on homework or studying with nocturnal sleep behavior and depression symptoms in adolescents from Singapore (2020) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Even in clinical trials, there is a variability in how the different levels of severity of depression are defined. 66,67”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“Adolescence is a period of significant vulnerability to the emergence of mental health disorders.(1) In particular, it is a critical window for the emergence of internalizing (i.e., mood and anxiety) disorders, especially in girls.(2,3)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses show that during adolescence, girls’ risk for depression rises to double or more than that of boys -- a disparity in both symptoms and diagnoses that peaks in mid-late adolescence, and persists across most of the remaining lifespan (for a recent multinational meta-analysis, see (2)).”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Layered atop these well-known developmental trajectories, a series of new findings indicate that rates of these adolescent-emergent mental health problems (depressive and anxiety disorders, NSSI, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors) have been increasing worldwide -- especially over the past decade, and most notably amongst girls.(2,20–23)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“It should also be highlighted that the relationship between age and the prevalence of depressive symptoms might vary depending on depression severity (Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“The mild depressive symptoms category is under the cut-off value (10+) consistently proposed to determine the presence of depression using the PHQ-8 and, therefore, could be indicative of subclinical depression or depressive mood (Levis et al., 2019;Moriarty et al., 2015;Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(299) = 1961.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(299) = 1961.63, p < .001”
- Consistentt(412) = 9542.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(412) = 9542.50, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting percentages for researcher-supplied symptom data
MinorThe results state that 357 of 413 symptom effect sizes (86%) came from data obtained from authors, but the limitations section gives 76% for the same category.
“357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
Citations
Cites
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Williams, J. B. W., & First, M. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199975839.013.104 · Cited by 109,845
Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: the PRISMA statement
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & for the PRISMA Group (2009) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.b2535 · Cited by 83,823
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Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
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The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale for Research in the General Population
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The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale
Zigmond, A. S., & Snaith, R. P. (1983) · Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica · doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.1983.tb09716.x · Cited by 47,139 · cited 2×
“…Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977); SCL-D Symptom Checklist-90- Depression items (Derogatis et al., 1973); HADS-D Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale- Depression subscale (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983); RADS Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (Reynolds, 1986); EURO-D (Prince et al., 1999); MHI-D…”
The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure
Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L., & Williams, J. B. W. (2001) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1046/j.1525-1497.2001.016009606.x · Cited by 44,910 · cited 2×
“The OR (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001) was the effect size used for the meta-analysis on major depression diagnoses; Cohen’s d (Cohen, Table 2 (continued) Study d Country NM NF Measure Year Age Sample E F von Soest et al. (2014)a .38 Norway 610 653 SCL-D 2010 14 Young in Norway 2 von Soest et al. (2014)a .52 Norway 573 695 SC…”
An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032 · cited 2×
“…American, 4 85% Asian American, 5 85% Hispanic; F focus of article: 1 gender, 2 depression, 3 other; a received additional data from author; BDI Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961, 1996); DMI Depressive Mood Inventory (see Abebe et al., 2016); CDI Children’s Depression Inventory…”
(1992) · PubMed · Cited by 33,716
(1998) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · Cited by 19,139
Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 276 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 901–1,000 of 2,611
Hasan, M. M., Díaz-Morales, J., & Khan, M. H. A. (2022) · Chronobiology International · doi:10.1080/07420528.2022.2032126 · Cited by 9
“For instance, mental health problems, including depression and anxiety, are more common in women than in men (Kim et al. 2020; Muzni et al. 2020; Salk et al. 2017).”
BackgroundQuach, D. T., & Phan, B. T. (2022) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s381892 · Cited by 10
“Salt et al recently reported the results of two meta-analyses representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.(26) The study found that all effect sizes for depression were positive among different subgroups.”
ResultCohen, J. R., & Thakur, H. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.09.088 · Cited by 12
Wang, Q., Li, Y., Ren, H., Huang, Q., Wang, X., Zhou, Y., Wu, Q., Liu, Y., Li, M., Wang, Y., et al. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.096 · Cited by 10
Bono, G., Duffy, T., & Merz, E. L. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13030320 · Cited by 10
Prevalence, risk factors and prognostic value of anxiety and depression in recurrent glioma patients
Liu, X., & Zhan, G. (2023) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2023.2221445 · Cited by 10
“Possible reasons might be as follows: (1) Many sexual characteristics (such as the actions of reproductive steroid hormones and anxiety sensitivity) make females more likely to develop anxiety and depression symptoms (Donner & Lowry, 2013; Norr et al., 2015; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundEditorial: Cognitive and mental health improvement under- and post-COVID-19
Chen, C., Nibbio, G., & Kotozaki, Y. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1565941 · Cited by 10
Sorlí, J. V., de la Cámara, E., Fernández-Carrión, R., Asensio, E. M., Portolés, O., Ortega-Azorín, C., Pérez-Fidalgo, A., Villamil, L. V., Fitó, M., Barragán, R., et al. (2024) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu17010104 · Cited by 9
“Among them, we can mention the heterogeneity in the definition of depression [16], demographic characteristics [39,40], and other lifestyle factors [41–43].”
Gazit, T., & Eden, S. (2025) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.70115 · Cited by 12
“…considered one of the most vulnerable groups while facing crisis and conflict, and often suffer from negative effects (S. Eden et al. 2023; Manzanero et al. 2021), as characterized by heightened exposure to interpersonal stress and emotional intensity (e.g., Guyer et al. 2016; Salk et al. 2017).”
Rodrigues, G. A., Obeldobel, C. A., Kochendorfer, L. B., Brumariu, L. E., Fareri, D. S., & Kerns, K. A. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01394-9 · Cited by 13
Martin, C. E., Patel, H., Dzierzewski, J. M., Moeller, F. G., Bierut, L. J., Grucza, R. A., & Xu, K. Y. (2023) · SLEEP · doi:10.1093/sleep/zsad083 · Cited by 10
The Internet, the Problem of Socialising Young People, and the Role of Religious Education
Kraner, D. (2023) · Religions · doi:10.3390/rel14040523 · Cited by 9
Kif15 deficiency contributes to depression-like behavior in mice
Wang, J., Tu, Q., Zhang, S., He, X., Ma, C., Qian, X., Wu, R., Shi, X., Yang, Z., Liu, Y., et al. (2023) · Metabolic Brain Disease · doi:10.1007/s11011-023-01238-y · Cited by 9
“Women experience major depression twice as frequently as men based on the statistical results of psychiatric epidemiology, since it affects 15% of women and 8% of men during their lifetime (Salk et al. 2017; Alshaya 2022).”
BackgroundImpulsivity and adolescent relationships: Negative urgency predicts interpersonal problems in youth
Porcelli, S. E., Koch, M. K., & Mendle, J. (2023) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2023.101584 · Cited by 11
Sex Differences in Temporal Sleep Patterns, Social Jetlag, and Attention in High School Adolescents
Diogo, F. M. C., Bessa, Z. C. M., Galina, S. D., de Oliveira, M. L. C., da Silva-Júnior, E. L. R., Valdéz, P., & de Azevedo, C. V. M. (2024) · Sleep Science · doi:10.1055/s-0043-1777831 · Cited by 9
“28 In this context, the use of social media by girls is associated with an increased negative impact on mental health and anxiety symptoms, 29 which can interfere with their sleep health.”
BackgroundZhou, L., Nutakor, J. A., Larnyo, E., Addai‐Dansoh, S., Cui, Y., & Dey, N. E. Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1233919 · Cited by 11
Characterizing human spontaneous thoughts and its application in major depressive disorder
Li, H., Chen, X., Wang, Z., Lü, B., Liao, Y., Li, X., Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Castellanos, F. X., & Yan, C. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.08.060 · Cited by 10
Meng, Y., Chiu, C., Kapoor, M., Li, S., Kaur, N., Marr, P., Kwan, D., Leblanc, K., Ji, C., & Papoushek, C. (2024) · Journal of Primary Care & Community Health · doi:10.1177/21501319241286313 · Cited by 13
“35 As such, purposive sampling was utilized to increase recruitment of male participants.”
MethodDepression and Anxiety Among Arab Individuals in the United States: A Meta-analysis
El-Refaay, S. M. M., Kenny, C., & Weiss, S. (2024) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-024-01648-9 · Cited by 11
“Retrospective studies reported the largest rate of depression (60%, 95% CI [56%, 64%]), with cross-sectional studies reporting the second largest rate (48%, 95% CI [31%, 65%]), and pilot studies the lowest rate (29%, 95% CI [33%, 35%]).”
Wen, G., Cao, P., Liu, L., Hao, M., Liu, S., Zheng, J., Yang, J., Zai͏̈ane, O. R., & Wang, F. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/tmi.2024.3512603 · Cited by 9
“The available literature [69], [70] indicates that the prevalence of depression is significantly higher in females than in males.”
The protective role of employment in depression: insights from 2005 to 2018 NHANES information
Li, F., & Chu, Z. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1455122 · Cited by 9
Sex differences in romantic love: an evolutionary perspective
Bode, A., Luoto, S., & Kavanagh, P. S. (2025) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-025-00698-4 · Cited by 22
“We followed Hyde [84], see also [38], in interpreting the magnitude of Cohen’s d effect sizes so that sex difference effects were considered small when 0.11 < d ≤ 0.35; moderate when 0.36 < d ≤ 0.65; large when 0.66 < d ≤ 0.99; and very large when d ≥ 1.00.”
InfluentialKnowles, G., Stanyon, D., Yamasaki, S., Miyashita, M., Gayer-Anderson, C. E., Endo, K., Usami, S., Niimura, J., Nakajima, N., Baba, K., et al. (2025) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(25)00059-8 · Cited by 12
Psychoneuroendocrine stress response in female and male youth with major depressive disorder
Bernhard, A., Fann, N., Chiocchetti, A. G., Ackermann, K., Martinelli, A., & Freitag, C. M. (2025) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14168 · Cited by 11
Why are women more fatigued than men? The roles of stress, sleep, and repetitive negative thinking
Golmohamadi, S., & Graham, B. M. (2025) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2025.2490212 · Cited by 9
“Women’s higher rates of depression and anxiety are well documented in the literature (Farhane-Medina et al., 2022; McLean et al., 2011; Salk et al., 2017).”
Liu, P., Gao, S., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Du, J., Dong, Q., & Liu, X. (2025) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2025.119480 · Cited by 10
Suokas, K., Niemi, R., Gutvilig, M., McGrath, J. J., Komulainen, K., Suvisaari, J., Elovainio, M. J., Lumme, S., Pirkola, S. P., & Hakulinen, C. A. (2025) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796025100061 · Cited by 23
“The reasons for this disparity remain unclear (Kirkbride et al. , 2024; Salk et al. , 2017).”
Lai, S., Zeng, Y., Li, T., Li, Y., An, Y., & Ouyang, X. (2025) · Food Science & Nutrition · doi:10.1002/fsn3.70605 · Cited by 11
“The genders comprised male and female (Salk et al. 2017).”
Lyamtsev, A. S., Sentyabreva, A. V., & Kosyreva, A. M. (2025) · International Journal of Molecular Sciences · doi:10.3390/ijms26189250 · Cited by 9
“It is one of the most common mental disorders, affecting more than 250 million people worldwide [178], making it a leading cause of disability, the prevalence of which continues to rise [179].”
Hueg, T. K., Lim, Y.-H., Holmboe, S. A., Micali, N., & Juul, A. (2025) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/clinem/dgaf567 · Cited by 9
Machado, A. G., Silveira, A. C. S., Peres, A. M., Pereira, N. D. S. C., Trindade, A. A., Lúcio, J. A., Lampert, C., August, P. M., Lobo, P. M. S., Jorge, R. O., et al. (2021) · Nutritional Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/1028415x.2021.1929766 · Cited by 9
Lubecka, B., Lubecki, M., Kasperczyk, J., Jośko-Ochojska, J., & Pudło, R. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph181910248 · Cited by 12
“The study showed that depressive disorders occur twice as often in the group of women than in men, which is confirmed by other publications [18,19].”
ResultMental health status of adults under institutional quarantine: a cross sectional survey in Tunisia
Kharroubi, G., Cherif, I., Amor, S. H., Zribi, M., Atigue, W. B., Ouali, U., & Bettaieb, J. (2021) · Pan African Medical Journal · doi:10.11604/pamj.2021.40.197.31112 · Cited by 9
“Indeed, women are known for being more likely to develop mood and anxiety disorders [26,27].”
BackgroundHair androgen concentrations and depressive disorders in adolescents from the general population
Kische, H., Voß, C., Haring, R., Ollmann, T. M., Pieper, L., Kirschbaum, C., & Beesdo‐Baum, K. (2022) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-021-01929-w · Cited by 8
“1 3 by depressive disorders compared to males with sex differentiation not occurring before adolescence [83].”
BackgroundPubertal emergence of testosterone effects on depressive symptoms in boys
Culbert, K. M., Roa, A. M., Stevens, K. S., Sisk, C. L., Burt, S. A., & Klump, K. L. (2022) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.12088 · Cited by 9
“Epidemiological data indicate that sex differences (i.e., higher rates in females than males) in the prevalence of clinical depression and depressive symptoms become evident around puberty (Frey et al., 2020; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundMental Health of People Under Isolation During the covid-19 Outbreak: An Exploratory Study
Díaz, C. M. C., García, N. B., Alba‐Marrugo, M. A., Escudero, J. P. S., Marín-Cortés, A., & Tungjitcharoen, W. (2022) · Revista Colombiana de Psicología · doi:10.15446/rcp.v31n2.89960 · Cited by 10
“…an association between gender and depressive symptoms and depression diagnoses, with these being more prevalent in women than in men, and also varying according to age, where teenagers and elderly adults with a small social network are more vulnerable (Salk et al., 2017; Sonnenberg et al., 2012).”
BackgroundInfluence of Pain Self‐Efficacy and Gender on Disability in Postoperative Cervical Myelopathy
Kondo, Y., Higuchi, D., Miki, T., Watanabe, Y., & Takebayashi, T. (2023) · Pain Management Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.pmn.2022.12.004 · Cited by 9
Villalpando, J. M. G., Baeza‐Flores, G. D. C., Blé‐Castillo, J. L., Méndez, K. D. S. C., Juárez‐Rojop, I. E., Morales-Contreras, J. A., Olvera‐Hernández, V., Quiroz-Gómez, S., Tapia, S. D. J. R., Ruiz-Quiñones, J. A., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20054230 · Cited by 10
Han, Y., Chen, W., Forno, E., & Celedon, J. C. (2023) · Annals of the American Thoracic Society · doi:10.1513/annalsats.202305-481oc · Cited by 9
Stacchini, L., Catalini, A., Nicolò, V. D., Cosma, C., Gallinoro, V., Ancona, A., Berselli, N., Caminiti, M., Mazza, C., Minutolo, G., et al. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13110881 · Cited by 10
“Globally, females have a higher risk of suffering from depression and related symptoms than males [54,55], a situation that was exacerbated during the COVID-19 pandemic, possibly because females were more likely to be affected by its social consequences [56].”
BackgroundZhao, Y., Niu, J., Huang, J., & Meng, Y. (2024) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-024-00717-z · Cited by 10
“Concerning gender differences in depressive symptoms, a previous meta-analysis suggests that girls tend to report higher levels of depressive symptoms than boys [41].”
ResultXu, X., Li, Z., Xu, T., & He, M. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520944564 · Cited by 9
“Striking gender differences exist in depression and anxiety disorders between men and women (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Pearson, 1995; Salk et al., 2017; Simon, 2002), but knowledge concerning gender variations in the effects of multiple types of IPV victimization on mental health is awfully limited (Winstok & Straus,…”
BackgroundMethodKanders, S. H., Nilsson, K. W., & Åslund, C. (2021) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1007/s10389-020-01460-3 · Cited by 9
“The effect size then declined to 0.30 for ages 20–29 years where it remained statistically stable (Salk et al. 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialvan der Velden, P. G., van Bakel, H. J. A., de Cock, E. S. A., Contino, C., & Das, M. (2021) · Journal of Mental Health · doi:10.1080/09638237.2021.1922633 · Cited by 9
“To rule out as much as possible that associations were confounded by other factors that are associated with MHP, such as sex and age (cf. Salk et al., 2017), level of education (cf. Lorant et al., 2003), employment (cf. Kim & von Dem Knesebeck, 2016), marital status (cf. Blanner Kristiansen et al.,…”
BackgroundHerreen, D., Rice, S., Ward, L., & Zajac, I. T. (2021) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1947966 · Cited by 9
“Throughout the lifespan, women are twice as likely to meet criteria for major depressive disorder compared to men (Salk et al., 2017; Zunzunegui et al., 2007).”
BackgroundZhong, R., Chen, Q., Li, N., Zhang, X., & Lin, W. (2021) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2021.108201 · Cited by 9
Depressive Symptoms, Gender, Disclosure, and HIV Care Stage Among People Living with HIV in Cameroon
Parcesepe, A. M., Remch, M., Dzudié, A., et al. (2021) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-021-03425-3 · Cited by 9
NEW APPROACH TO CREATE MORE EFFECTIVE TEAMS IN THE INNOVATION PROCESS IN ENTERPRISES
Okoń-Horodyńska, E., Zachorowska-Mazurkiewicz, A., Wisła, R., et al. (2020) · Journal of Business Economics and Management · doi:10.3846/jbem.2020.12221 · Cited by 9
“Studies have suggested that diversity has a positive effect on innovation (Østergaard et al., 2011; Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundScreening for Depression in Adolescents with Developmental Disabilities: Brief Report
Valicenti-McDermott, M., Rivelis, E., Bernstein, C., Cardin, M.-J., & Seijo, R. (2021) · Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1089/cap.2021.0062 · Cited by 9
“However, in our sample, girls were noted to have higher scores, consistent with what had been previously reported in the literature (Salk et al. 2017).”
Pengpid, S., & Peltzer, K. (2021) · Asian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ajp.2021.102959 · Cited by 9
Thorne, B. N., Ellenbroek, B. A., & Day, D. J. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.25455/wgtn.18737168 · Cited by 9
Sociodemographic factors as moderators of COVID-19 stress on depression
Rice, K. G., Aiello, M., Durán, B., Ashby, J. S., & Kira, I. A. (2022) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615806.2022.2076084 · Cited by 10
“Multiple studies revealed risk for higher levels of stress and depression as a function of gender (Barbosa-Leiker et al., 2013; Salk et al., 2017), racial/ethnic group (Barnes et al., 2013), and socioeconomic status (Lorant et al., 2003).”
BackgroundTsai, S.-J., Hsiao, Y.-H., Liao, M.-Y., & Lee, M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19116922 · Cited by 10
“According to the result, the percentage of females was higher in DP, MD, and DD group, which means females are more likely to develop mood disorder and this is consistent with past studies [39].”
ResultNomogram for Predicting Depression Improvement after Deep Brain Stimulation for Parkinson’s Disease
Chang, B., Chen, N., Mei, J., et al. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12070841 · Cited by 9
“Age has been an important predictor of depression in numerous studies [18,19], which was consistent with our study showing that older patients were more likely to achieve satisfactory improvement.”
ResultMale-Type Depression Mediates the Relationship between Avoidant Coping and Suicidal Ideation in Men
O’Gorman, K. M., Wilson, M. J., Seidler, Z. E., English, D., Zajac, I. T., Fisher, K., & Rice, S. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710874 · Cited by 12
“Twice as many women are diagnosed with major depressive disorder compared to men [3], yet men are four times as likely to die by suicide [4] and exhibit significantly higher rates of alcohol and other drug use [5].”
BackgroundWhiston, A., Igou, E. R., Fortune, D. G., Analog Devices Team, & Semkovska, M. (2022) · IEEE Journal of Translational Engineering in Health and Medicine · doi:10.1109/jtehm.2022.3228483 · Cited by 13
Cedrone, F., Berselli, N., Stacchini, L., Nicolò, V. D., Caminiti, M., Ancona, A., Minutolo, G., Mazza, C., Cosma, C., Gallinoro, V., et al. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20095620 · Cited by 11
“Applying the gender lens, according to the literature, women are subject to a higher risk of depression and related symptoms compared to men worldwide [32].”
MethodGender Stigma Consciousness, Imposter Phenomenon, and Self-Silencing: A Mediational Relationship
Maji, S., & Dixit, S. (2023) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-023-00724-8 · Cited by 15
Espinós, U., Fernández-Abascal, E. G., & Bruna, M. M. O. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0222112 · Cited by 9
Chuinsiri, N. (2021) · Journal of International Society of Preventive and Community Dentistry · doi:10.4103/jispcd.jispcd_131_21 · Cited by 8
“[36,37] Earlier findings found that sleep apnea had a male predilection, [22,38] complying with the present study in which men dominated the apnea-comorbid cluster.”
ResultAtkin, A. L., Christophe, N. K., Williams, C. D., et al. (2023) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-023-09386-7 · Cited by 8
“Our findings that there is a gender disparity in psychological distress for Multiracial emerging adults is in line with oft-documented gender disparities in internalizing symptoms (Salk et al., 2017).”
ResultKhanna, T., Banerjee, B., Majhi, M. M., & Futela, D. (2023) · Indian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_19_23 · Cited by 8
“[29] Thus, it has been attributed tentatively to menarche.”
Yang, S., Han, K., Wang, S., Li, R., Li, X., Chen, S., Zhao, Y., Liu, G., Liu, M., & He, Y. (2023) · Sleep Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2023.11.007 · Cited by 8
The Microbiome in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
Zimmermann-Rösner, A., & Prehn‐Kristensen, A. (2024) · Zeitschrift für Kinder- und Jugendpsychiatrie und Psychotherapie · doi:10.1024/1422-4917/a000965 · Cited by 8
Sex/Gender Differences in Depression and Anxiety Disorders
Park, H. Y. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-97-0130-8_21 · Cited by 12
Esposito, M., Amicucci, G., Salfi, F., Pellegrini, C., Berardinis, A. D., Chiricozzi, A., Peris, K., Tempesta, D., Ferrara, M., & Fargnoli, M. C. (2024) · Postgraduate Medicine · doi:10.1080/00325481.2024.2366162 · Cited by 9
“Control participants were matched to each AD patient for age (±1 year) and sex, as these two demographic factors are associated with different sleep and psychological characteristics [14,15].”
Depression Takes a Toll on Academic Performance: Evidence from Rural Students in China
Yan, R., Jin, S., Ji, C., Feng, C., Wang, H., Lyu, J., & Rozelle, S. (2024) · Risk Management and Healthcare Policy · doi:10.2147/rmhp.s469836 · Cited by 13
“75 Second, students who boarded at their school were at a higher risk of general depression.”
BackgroundLi, D., Han, L., Wu, J., Chen, H., Shen, M., Tong, B., Zeng, W., Wang, W., & Shang, S. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-79601-x · Cited by 8
Ranjbar, H. A., Altan-Atalay, A., Asgarabad, M. H., Turan, B., & Eskin, M. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2025.1452455 · Cited by 8
“Such trends are observable in various large-scale studies examining symptoms of depression and anxiety (72, 73).”
Bhargava, A., & Ashwin, C. (2025) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.reia.2025.202547 · Cited by 8
Hu, Y., Zhao, L., Sui, W., & Gao, Y. F. (2025) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1577987 · Cited by 16
“Previous studies have shown that girls’ overall mental health may be poorer than that of boys (Yoon et al., 2023; Campbell et al., 2021), and that the sex difference peaks during adolescence (Salk et al., 2017).”
Wu, S., Chen, X.-D., Liu, Q.-T., Chen, L., Sun, L., Guan, W., Kang, J., Hu, J., Hu, J., & Liu, Z. (2025) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2025.177820 · Cited by 8
Chu, Z., Xie, J., Liu, R., Ou, L., Zheng, L., & Xie, G. (2025) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2025.1555615 · Cited by 15
Guo, Y. C., Wu, Y., Fan, S., & Wang, H. (2025) · MedComm · doi:10.1002/mco2.70366 · Cited by 10
“It is worthnotingthattheprevalenceofseveredepressivesymptomsis slightly higher than those in some previous studies [24, 25] Adjusted ORs (95% CIs) for the association between individual ACEs and major depression symptoms (A), moderate or severe anxiety…”
InfluentialHusky, M. M., Salamon, R., Bitfoi, A., Carta, M. G., Chee, C. C., Goelitz, D., Koç, C., Lesinskienė, S., Mihova, Z., Otten, R., et al. (2020) · European Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17405629.2020.1728247 · Cited by 8
Employment Status Change and New-Onset Depressive Symptoms in Permanent Waged Workers
Kim, H. D., & Park, S. (2020) · Safety and Health at Work · doi:10.1016/j.shaw.2020.09.012 · Cited by 8
A population-wide analysis of the familial risk of suicide in Utah, USA
Bakian, A. V., Chen, D., Zhang, C., Hanson, H. A., Docherty, A. R., Keeshin, B. R., Gray, D., Smith, K. R., VanDerslice, J. A., Yu, D., et al. (2021) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291721003020 · Cited by 11
The Impact of Gender and Culture in Consumer Behavior
Ng, S., Bharti, M., & Faust, N. T. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.021 · Cited by 9
Spyropoulou, E., & Giovazolias, T. (2022) · The Journal of Early Adolescence · doi:10.1177/02724316221078827 · Cited by 9
“Contrary to Twenge and Nolen-Hoeksema (2002) meta-analysis in which meaningful gender differences in depressive symptoms seem to emerge after the 13years, girls of the present sample reported modestly higher levels of these symptoms compared to boys at both times of measurement (e.g., Khesht-Masjedi et al., 2017; Salk…”
BackgroundHe, W., Xu, D., Wang, J., Shen, Y., Lin, Z., Ruan, L., & Chen, Q. (2022) · Annals of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12991-022-00412-3 · Cited by 8
Origin of Sex-Biased Mental Disorders: Do Males and Females Experience Different Selective Regimes?
Brown, C. M., Wong, Q. Y., Thakur, A., Singh, K. K., & Singh, R. S. (2022) · Journal of Molecular Evolution · doi:10.1007/s00239-022-10072-2 · Cited by 7
Zhao, H., Shi, H., Ren, Z., He, M., Li, X., Li, Y., Pu, Y., Cui, L., Wang, S., Zhao, J., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2022.1604797 · Cited by 9
“However, researches on the mechanism of gender differences in depression is not comprehensive, and most of the researches focuses on financial comfort, social support, physiological health and gender equity [31, 32].”
BackgroundLiu, Y., Jiao, D., Yang, M., Cui, M., Li, X., Zhu, Z., Sawada, Y., Miura, K. W., Watanabe, T., Tanaka, E., et al. (2022) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11010124 · Cited by 9
“Although no temporal changes can be derived, we confirmed the results of previous studies, where age and sex did not significantly affect depressive symptoms at older ages [14,15].”
BackgroundResultThe role of sex differences in depression in pathologically defined Alzheimer’s disease
Tremblay, C., Choudhury, P., Belden, C. M., Goldfarb, D., Lorenzini, I., Beach, T. G., & Serrano, G. E. (2023) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2023.1156764 · Cited by 9
Saravanakumar, P., Muhammad, T., Paul, R., & Srivastava, S. (2023) · Clinical Gerontologist · doi:10.1080/07317115.2023.2257179 · Cited by 9
“When compared with prior research conducted in similar demographic cohorts, our findings of depression prevalence seem to align (Mohd et al., 2019; Salk et al., 2017).”
ResultThe ICD ‐11 opens the door for overdue improved identification of depression in men
Østergaard, S. D., Seidler, Z. E., & Rice, S. (2023) · World Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/wps.21124 · Cited by 8
Long-term health outcomes of Q-fever fatigue syndrome patients
Spronk, I., Brus, I. M., de Groot, A., Tieleman, P., Loohuis, A. G. M. O., Haagsma, J. A., & Polinder, S. (2023) · Epidemiology and Infection · doi:10.1017/s0950268823001401 · Cited by 9
“This is in contrast with the findings of large meta-analyses on depression in representative national samples from over 90 countries that reported that there are roughly twice as many females with depression as males with depression [37].”
ResultMonteagudo, P., Beltran‐Valls, M. R., Adelantado‐Renau, M., & Moliner‐Urdiales, D. (2023) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640414.2023.2268359 · Cited by 9
“…given the consistent sex differences observed in psychological distress, and PA (Altemus et al., 2014; Bann et al., 2019; Farooq et al., 2018; Gao et al., 2020; McLean et al., 2011; Salk et al., 2017), it is important to consider sex when examining the relationships between these health components.”
BackgroundSex-related differences in the clinical presentation of multiple system atrophy
Leys, F., Eschlböck, S., Campese, N., Mahlknecht, P., Peball, M., Goebel, G., Sidoroff, V., Krismer, F., Granata, R., Kiechl, S. J., et al. (2024) · Clinical Autonomic Research · doi:10.1007/s10286-024-01028-1 · Cited by 8
Bortes, C., & Giota, J. (2024) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2024.101937 · Cited by 17
Prevalence and Associated Factors of Depressive Symptoms among Older Adults in the Philippines
Pengpid, S., & Peltzer, K. (2024) · Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría · doi:10.62641/aep.v52i5.1686 · Cited by 8
“This result contradicts certain reviews and earlier research that indicate women are more likely than men to experience depression [3,37].”
ResultZou, Y., Wu, Y., Han, Y.-J., He, X., & Jiang, Z. (2024) · World Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.5498/wjp.v14.i11.1652 · Cited by 8
Pengpid, S., & Peltzer, K. (2018) · Journal of Psychology in Africa · doi:10.1080/14330237.2017.1375212 · Cited by 8
Mood matters: a national survey on attitudes to depression
Kelly, J. R., Cosgrove, M., Judd, C., Scott, K., Loughlin, A. M., & O’Keane, V. (2019) · Irish Journal of Medical Science (1971 -) · doi:10.1007/s11845-019-02014-7 · Cited by 9
Hein, M., Lanquart, J., Loas, G., Hubain, P., & Linkowski, P. (2020) · Biology of Sex Differences · doi:10.1186/s13293-020-00297-5 · Cited by 8
“The presence of a positive correlation between SWC during REM sleep as well as for all EEG bands during this sleep stage and subclinical symptoms of depression in women could allow a better understanding of sex differences in vulnerability to mood disorders [76].”
BackgroundThe association between genetically determined ABO blood types and major depressive disorder
Garvert, L., Baune, B. T., Berger, K., et al. (2021) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2021.113837 · Cited by 8
“Given the higher prevalence of depression among women (Salk et al., 2017), we also analyzed interaction effects of blood types and sex on lifetime MDD risk to examine putative sex-specific associations.”
BackgroundDidriksen, M., Thørner, L. W., Larsen, M. A. H., Sørensen, E., Burgdorf, K. S., Mikkelsen, S., Rostgaard, K., Banasik, K., Pedersen, O. B., Erikstrup, C., et al. (2021) · Transfusion · doi:10.1111/trf.16336 · Cited by 8
Yilmaz, M., Psychogiou, L., Ford, T. J., & Dunn, B. D. (2021) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.07.007 · Cited by 9
Nwankwo, G. N. A., Kook, M., Goetz, A. R., Campos, J. M. A., Cepeda, S. L., Hana, L. M., Weinzimmer, S. A., Schneider, S. C., Kennedy, S. M., Ehrenreich, J. T., et al. (2021) · Psychiatry Research Communications · doi:10.1016/j.psycom.2021.100008 · Cited by 10
Using the bogus pipeline to investigate trait narcissism and well-being
Brunell, A. B., & Buelow, M. T. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.109509 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2017-08
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 783-822
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC5532074
- OpenAlex
- W2609632515
- Cited by
- 2,622
- References
- 276
- Citations by year
- 2026: 352 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 403 · 2023: 354 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 261 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 153.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (DGE-071823; DRL 1138114)
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH018269-30)
- University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, depressive symptoms, adolescence, lifespan development, gender equity, cross-national comparison, health disparities, men's mental health
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Young Adult
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