The DOI matches its Crossref record; 272 of the 276 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 13 of the 92 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms
Open accessAbstract
In 2 meta-analyses on gender differences in depression in nationally representative samples, we advance previous work by including studies of depression diagnoses and symptoms to (a) estimate the magnitude of the gender difference in depression across a wide array of nations and ages; (b) use a developmental perspective to elucidate patterns of gender differences across the life span; and (c) incorporate additional theory-driven moderators (e.g., gender equity). For major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms, respectively, we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national data sets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations. Overall, odds ratio (OR) = 1.95, 95% confidence interval (CI) [1.88, 2.03], and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29]. Age was the strongest predictor of effect size. The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12. For both meta-analyses, the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13-15, and d = 0.47 for age 16) but then declined and remained stable in adulthood. Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms. The gender difference in depression represents a health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in men should not be overlooked. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
13 of 92 cited sources checked · 9 supported · 0 flagged · accuracy not yet measured
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“odds ratios (ORs, female/male) for 12-month major depressive episode (MDE1) ranged from 1.2 to 2.7 across 18 countries and 89,037 participants”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results table of sociodemographic associations reports a female-to-male odds ratio of 1.2 for 12-month MDE in China, and the Sociodemographic factors text reports 2.7 in Spain. Methods > Sampling and procedure states that the study included 18 countries and 89,037 participants. The 1.2 estimate was not statistically significant, but the claim does not say that every odds ratio was significant. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited findings in adulthood are inconsistent with respect to both the magnitude and direction of the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Angst et al., 2002 source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Mirowsky, 1996 source
- Partly supportedcites Oksuzyan et al., 2010 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Depression) and Discussion describe variation by country and age, including a slight reversal in Japan that was not statistically significant. But the paper studies middle and older ages, not adulthood broadly, and its Discussion says the literature generally finds higher depression prevalence in women from young adulthood through early old age. It does not support characterizing the limited findings across adulthood as inconsistent in direction. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesThe cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The limited research on ethnicity, gender, and depression in the United States does not indicate variation by ethnicity in the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Barnes et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section (‘Tests of interaction in NESARC data’; page unavailable) reports a non-significant race × sex interaction (P = 0.89), consistent with no detected Black–White variation in the sex difference in lifetime major depression. The study tests Black and White respondents, not ethnicity broadly, and says it lacked sufficient power to test the interaction for 12-month depression. (LLM, conf=0.86)
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Oquendo et al., 2001 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- Partly supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“This absence of any substantial effect for nation-level wealth is consistent with other research (Bromet et al., 2011) indicating that economic development is not a major factor in cross-national variations in the magnitude of gender differences in depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) report that the association between gender and major depressive episode did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). This supports the claim as an interpretation of the paper's income-group comparison, rather than proof that economic development has no effect. (LLM, conf=0.90)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passes- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the gender difference peaked in adolescence (OR = 3.02 for ages 13–15, and d = 0.47 for age 16)”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Cross-national analyses indicated that larger gender differences were found in nations with greater gender equity, for major depression, but not depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes- The authors state this as an assumption: The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, OR = 1.95, 95% CI [1.88, 2.03] and d = 0.27 [0.26, 0.29].”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesA result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Age was the strongest predictor of effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passes
- Probably not a substantial claim. 72
- It may state two separate claims as one. 101
- Borderline: one of the tests for a substantial claim is unclear. 1
- Not yet classified. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“A study including 18 countries from the WHO World Mental Health Surveys (Kessler & Usten, 2008) reported that the relationship between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors) analyze 12-month MDE across 18 countries and explicitly report that the association between gender and MDE did not differ significantly between high-income and low- to middle-income countries (P = 0.13). (LLM, conf=0.95)
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“However, findings also suggest that the 2:1 ratio is not universal and may vary substantially across nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Results (Sociodemographic factors; page unavailable) report that women were twice as likely as men to have a major depressive episode on average, but country-specific odds ratios varied. The difference was not statistically significant in three of the 18 countries, supporting the hedged claim that the 2:1 ratio is not universal. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“In the vast majority of epidemiological reports on adults, women have higher rates of major depression compared to men; on average, the ratio is 2:1”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Andrade et al., 2003 source
- Supportedcites Bromet et al., 2011 source
The Background states that almost all studies find an association between gender and depression and that women have a twofold increased risk of major depressive episode. The Results (Sociodemographic factors) likewise report that women were, on average, twice as likely as men to have an episode across the countries studied. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Other widely held beliefs about gender differences, such as the gender difference in math performance, have sometimes been found to be inaccurate when the data are meta-analyzed”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Supportedcites Lindberg et al., 2010 source
The Abstract reports that a meta-analysis of 242 studies found no overall gender difference in mathematics performance (d = .05). The Gender and Mathematics Performance section says stereotypes of female inferiority contrast with the performance data, supporting the claim that meta-analysis has found this widely held belief inaccurate. (LLM, conf=0.93)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
The sources with a verdict support this claim; the rest weren’t checked yet, have no full text we could read, or their verdicts aren’t rated yet.
In the paper
“there is increased recognition of the validity (e.g., Markon, Chmielewski, & Miller, 2011) and value (Cuthbert & Insel, 2013) of dimensional assessments, as well as the impairment associated with sub-threshold levels of symptoms that do not meet diagnostic criteria.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Markon et al., 2011 source
- Supportedcites Cuthbert & Insel, 2013 source
The citation is attached specifically to the value of dimensional assessments, not to their validity or the separate statement about impairment from sub-threshold symptoms. In “The seven pillars,” the paper endorses a dimensional approach and explains its value for studying mild psychopathology and informing intervention cut-points. (LLM, conf=0.91)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Two large multi-nation studies have reported conflicting results, finding that the gender gap in depression was smaller and larger, respectively, in low gender-equity countries compared to high gender-equity countries”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Cross-national variations: Research on economic and gender equity factors
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007 source
- Partly supportedcites Van de Velde et al., 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports the conflicting finding that Hopcroft and Bradley found a larger depression gender gap in high-equality countries, while this paper's results were more consistent with equality reducing women's disadvantage. But the Results say the overall interaction between gender and equality was not significant; a smaller gap at higher equality appeared only in certain subgroups and for certain measures. The sentence overstates this paper's finding as a general cross-country result. (LLM, conf=0.87)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Seedat and colleagues (2009) found a significant narrowing in the gender difference in depression in recent cohorts.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Seedat et al., 2009 source
The Abstract states that gender differences narrowed significantly in recent cohorts for major depressive disorder. The COMMENT section likewise reports significantly smaller gender differences in major depression in more recent cohorts. (LLM, conf=0.94)
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“One latent growth curve analysis indicated that girls’ depression symptoms accelerated early in adolescence and then leveled off, whereas boys’ symptom levels accelerated in late adolescence (Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016), consistent with the first possibility above.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Salk, Petersen, Abramson, & Hyde, 2016 source
The Results section’s latent growth curve analysis says girls’ depression scores increased and then leveled off, while boys’ scores were initially low and increased more rapidly at later ages. The Discussion likewise describes girls’ symptoms accelerating early in adolescence and boys’ symptoms accelerating later. (LLM, conf=0.95)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“On the face of it, greater contraceptive prevalence should indicate women’s greater control over reproduction and a lower rate of unwanted pregnancies, which are a risk factor for depression (e.g., Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites Mercier, Garrett, Thorp, & Siega-Riz, 2013 sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (Main Findings) reports that women with unwanted pregnancies had a higher risk of postpartum depression than women with intended pregnancies. The claim says “depression” without limiting it to the postpartum period; the paper also cautions in the Discussion (Interpretation) that it cannot establish a causal relationship. The contraceptive-prevalence premise appears to be the citing authors’ framing, not a finding attributed to this source. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, U.S. ethnicity did not account for significant variation in effect size (see Table 4).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear? Based: unclearBorderline substantial claim. It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it. It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“but then declined and remained stable in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we meta-analyzed data from 65 and 95 articles and their corresponding national datasets, representing data from 1,716,195 and 1,922,064 people in over 90 different nations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference for diagnoses emerged earlier than previously thought, with OR = 2.37 at age 12.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Abstract
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 112 articles from the original search met criteria for inclusion, including articles for which authors needed to be contacted for data. We added 46 new articles that were not in the original search from additional searching for nationally representative datasets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow-up testing with pairs of consecutive age groups indicated that the effect sizes for ages 8–12 (0.09), 13–15 (0.35), and 16–19 (0.41) were statistically different (QB = 23.01 and QB = 8.06, ps< .01, respectively), such that the effect size for each consecutively age group was significantly larger than the previous age group.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The depression symptom meta-analysis covers data collected from 1978–2014 whereas the major depression meta-analysis only includes data collected from 1991–2014.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from OR = 1.71 to OR = 3.02, with ORs >2.0 during adolescence and ORs between 1.71 and 2.02 in adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the major depression meta-analysis, all articles reported DSM major depression diagnoses or episodes (96%) or the roughly equivalent ICD-10 depressive episode (4%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.07.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that the youngest age group available for these analyses was 12 years old, making it impossible to observe the emergence of the gender difference from childhood to adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, when outliers were removed, the effect became marginally significant (QB = 3.09, p = 0.08) with smaller gender differences in high-income nations (d = 0.26) compared to low- to middle- income nations (d = 0.29).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The random effects variance component was 0.02.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although the LRT showed a marginal effect for the major depression meta-analysis, the weighted average from the unadjusted model (logged OR = 0.67) and the adjusted model (logged OR = 0.62) were quite similar.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1991 to 2016 and yielded data from 1978–2014 collected from 53 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“utilized data comprising 180 samples, 413 effect sizes, and 1,922,064 people (52% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,922,064Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“They both include mostly high-income countries and cover the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The OR at ages 16–19 (2.69) was significantly larger than the OR for ages 20–29 (1.93), QB = 43.19, p < .001, indicating a significant decrease in the gender difference from adolescence to the 20s.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Removal of outliers did not change the estimates of effect sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The likelihood ratio tests (LRT) comparing the unadjusted to adjusted models (using p-value cut points of 0.05, 0.01, and 0.001) for the major depression and depression symptom meta-analyses, respectively, were not statistically significant, p = 0.073 and p = 0.3226.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Importantly, there was not a range restriction for the literacy variable (ratios ranged from .31 to 1.07), which can have substantial negative skew (Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Else-Quest & Grabe, 2012 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence and literacy ratio both predicted variability in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, they differ in terms of the distribution of nations and year of data collection.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the symptom meta-analysis, most effect sizes were based on the C ES-D measure.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, in follow-up analyses, effect sizes from articles that focused on gender were not significantly different than effect sizes from articles that focused on depression (QB = 2.22, p = 0.14) or something other than gender or depression (QB = 0.91, p =0.34).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These studies were published from 1993 to 2016 with data from 1991–2014 collected in 75 different countries.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“provided data comprising 149 samples (this number includes different countries from the same international dataset as well as different years of data collection for cross-sectional national datasets), 300 effect sizes (this number includes separate effect sizes for different age groups and ethnicities), and 1,716,195 people (53% female).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedn = 1,716,195Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The vast majority of effect sizes for the major depression meta-analysis were 12-month major depressive episodes based on the DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR using a version of the CIDI.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When outliers were excluded, the age 13–15 OR decreased from 3.02 to 2.92 and the age 70+ OR increased from 2.02 to 2.20.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and the depression symptom meta-analysis includes the most effect sizes from Europe (53%).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Description of the Samples for each Meta-analysis
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes ranged from d = 0.09 to d = 0.41, peaking at ages 16–19, declining in the 20s, and staying relatively stable at roughly d = 0.20 after that.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Developmental Trends
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The final sample of studies (see Figure 1) for the meta-analyses included data from 65 (diagnosis meta-analysis) and 95 (symptom meta-analysis) articles and their corresponding data sets.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Income inequality was a significant predictor of effect size, such that larger gender differences were reported in nations with low levels of income inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level economic indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As shown in Table 4, manual for major depression (e.g., DSM-IV, ICD-10), type of depression (episode versus disorder) and depression time span (1 month, 6 months, 12 months, and lifetime) did not predict effect size variation.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For both meta-analyses, the effect size peaked in adolescence but then declined and remained stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously.”
- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
“Our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms peaks in adolescence, with the gender gap in diagnoses emerging earlier than previously thought (OR = 2.37 at age 12). The gender gap then narrows and remains stable in adulthood, a finding that has not been identified previously and has important implications for both theory and”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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- Also stated in: § Conclusions · boosted
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both meta-analyses, the gender difference declined in early adulthood and then remained relatively stable, hovering between OR = 1.71 – 2.02 and d = 0.19 – 0.30.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Expressed in the Cohen’s d metric, the two effect sizes are similar: d = 0.37 for major depression and d = 0.27 for depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The odds ratio for the 13–15 age group in our meta-analysis was already 3.02 and declined, not widened, to OR = 2.69 for ages 16–19.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“To better understand this pattern, we created a categorical variable for year of data collection and obtained the following effect size estimates: 1991–1996= 1.84, k = 22; 1997–2002= 1.88, k = 134; 2003–2008= 1.91, k = 59; 2009–2014 = 2.17, k = 85.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the major depression meta-analysis, we could not examine the emergence of the gender difference given that the youngest age in the studies was 12, when the OR was already 2.37.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, among different subgroups, all odds ratios for diagnoses were > 1.0, and all effect sizes for symptoms were positive.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Contraceptive prevalence, executive positions, and the literacy ratio did not predict variation in effect size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Nation-level gender equity indicators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Follow up analyses, excluding outliers, indicated that diagnoses using the ICD were significantly smaller than both diagnoses using DSM-IV/DSM-IV-TR (QB = 6.86, p < .01) and DSM-III/ DSM- III-R TR (QB = 9.60, p < .01).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the symptom meta-analysis, the gender difference emerged in adolescence with a trivial gender difference for ages 8–11 (see Figure 3) and then a steep increase, reaching a peak in the gender difference at age 16.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In follow-up tests, all pair-wise comparisons were significantly different from each other, such that the smallest effect size was for the BDI (d = 0.20) and the largest effect size was for scales other than the BDI and CES-D (d = 0.31).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, there was no relation to the gender effect size for diagnoses; it was negatively related for symptom measures but lost significance when outliers were excluded.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In both the diagnosis and symptom meta-analyses, differences among ethnic groups were not significant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The symptom meta-analysis found no significant trend over time and the diagnosis meta-analysis found a positive trend, meaning that gender differences are growing larger.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
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A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These findings of larger gender differences in nations with greater gender equity did not replicate with the meta-analysis of depression symptoms, suggesting that caution is needed in interpreting the findings for diagnoses.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
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A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“However, other studies have found smaller gender differences in nations with more gender inequality. This pattern has been found for outcomes such as self-reports of personality traits and attitudes about mathematics”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“it was limited to the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1985) scale and samples of 8- to 16-year-old participants in the United States and Canada (n = 43,916).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
- Not matchedcites Kovacs, 1985
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The theory predicts that larger gender differences should be observed in nations with more gender inequality.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Hankin and colleagues (1998) found that the gender difference in clinical depression emerged by ages 13–15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hankin et al., 1998 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“According to the theory, a society’s division of labor by gender drives all other psychological gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Eagly & Wood, 1999
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Wood & Eagly, 2012 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Theories of developmental psychopathology contend that there are multiple pathways to the gender difference in depression involving combinations and interactions of risk factors that span multiple levels of analysis”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“there is no gender difference or even a somewhat higher prevalence of depression among boys than girls in childhood”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Avenevoli et al., 2008
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Twenge & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2002 source
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None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Evidence for this theory exists for several psychological gender differences, including mate preferences, mathematics performance, and some aspects of sexuality”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Social-structural theory
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“To the extent that women report higher rates of violent victimization, this may contribute to the gender difference in depression”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Koss et al., 1994 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The female preponderance in depression is thought to emerge by ages 13–15”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“gender inequality is linked to discrimination against women, which may contribute to the gender difference”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across Nations > Sociological theories
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Belle & Doucet, 2003 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Theories highlight how specific vulnerability factors come on-line at critical developmental periods in adolescence and/or interact with stressors in adolescence to produce the gender difference in adolescence”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Gender Differences in Depression across the Lifespan
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“adolescents and adults with subthreshold depression symptoms and minor depression still experience significant impairment (e.g., Lewinsohn, Solomon, Seeley, & Zeiss, 2000) and are at elevated risk for later development of major depression and suicidal behaviors”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Background
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The extant literature indicates that the prevalence of major depression in the United States varies both by gender and by ethnicity”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Breslau et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“One recent narrative review concluded that internalizing problems for girls increased from the late 20th century to the 21st century”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Trends over time
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Bor et al., 2014 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“we follow MARS reporting standards”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites American Psychological Association Publications and Communications Board, 2008
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If a particular sample of participants was used in more than one article, which was often the case with these national datasets, to maintain independence of samples, we selected the article that had the most complete data (including information on moderator variables such as age and ethnicity) and/or the largest sample size.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For nationally representative longitudinal studies with multiple waves of data (e.g., Add Health), we included only one wave of data to maintain independence of samples.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“type of depression diagnosis (depressive episode versus depressive disorder), κ = .87; and (4) the time span for the depression diagnosis (current, 1 month, 6 months, 12 months, lifetime), κ = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, all datasets were nationally representative, indicating that any bias in sampling is minimized.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression diagnoses, we received data from authors for 24 (37%) of the 65 articles, such that 167 (56%) of the 300 effect sizes were based on obtained rather than published data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although they were theoretically interesting, the intimate-partner violence and sexism ideals measures proved unsatisfactory because they were available for only a minority of the effect sizes in analyses. Those two measures are therefore not considered further.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Gender Equity Indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Data were entered in the calculator by two individuals to ensure accuracy.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we coded the focus of the article (gender, depression, other), κ = .84.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“They argued that the strongest scientific evidence about gender differences does not come from small studies of convenience samples, but instead comes from larger studies based on representative samples of populations.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges & Nowell, 1995 source
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We included abstracts that explicitly mentioned “nationally representative.””
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the type of measure used to assess depression diagnoses (diagnostic interview; e.g., CIDI, DIS) or depression symptoms (self-report measure; e.g., CES-D, BDI), κ = 1.0; (2) the manual used to diagnose depression (DSM-IV or DSM-IV-TR5; DSM-III or DSM-III-R; or ICD-10), κ = 1.0”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For the meta-analysis on depression symptoms, we received data from authors for 71 (75%) of the 95 articles, such that 357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“age of the participants (measured on a continuous scale, using the reported mean or the midpoint of the age range), r = .99”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“country, κ (kappa) = 1.00”
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
“predominant (≥ 85%) ethnic group of participants (Caucasian, African American, Asian American, Hispanic, Native American, other, mixed, or unreported), κ = 1.00; and (d) year of data collection, r = 1.00.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Coding of Studies · plain
In the paper
“a meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem found a small difference favoring Caucasian males over Caucasian females, d = 0.20, but no gender difference for African American samples, d = −0.04”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression > Ethnicity in the U.S. and Intersectionality
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Kling et al., 1999 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“all authors of the study for whom we could find email addresses from the article, the Web directory of the authors’ academic institution, or a Google search, were contacted.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded if their measurement of depression symptoms did not meet the following criteria: 1) minimum of 3 items; 2) self-report; 3) Cronbach’s alpha ≥.70 (if provided); and 4) valid and reliable measure of depression based on previously published research”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we excluded studies that were not based on national probability sampling. In other words, we included only population-based surveys representative of the country.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We double coded 30 studies to compute interrater agreement.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Coding of Studies
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For each of the economic and gender equity indicators, data are not available for all nations. Therefore, sample sizes vary in regression analyses, depending on the indicator.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Nation-level Economic Indicators
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Raw effect sizes were corrected for bias (i.e., the upward-bias of effect sizes among small samples; Hedges, 1981); however, most correction factors were close to 1.0 given the large sample sizes.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Effect Size Computation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Hedges, 1981 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This indicates that most studies were published on the basis of the work on depression and not on the basis of a gender difference, so publication bias in the direction of gender differences should not be a problem.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Analysis for Possible Bias and File Drawer Effects
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The Hedges and Nowell strategy has since been used in other meta-analyses on gender differences in cognitive abilities”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Sampling Issues
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Studies were excluded in the processing of articles if their measurement of depression diagnoses did not include a diagnostic interview with the participant.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Identification of Studies and Data Sets
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All analyses were run with the full data set and then re-run excluding outliers.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Methods > Data-Analytic Plan
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The result is that stressors attached to these transitions are spread out more evenly across adulthood, leading to more even rates of depression across age for both women and men, and a stable gender gap.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, although the range of OR = 1.84 to 2.17 is not great, the positive relationship is clear.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Results > Additional Moderators
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Taken together, our results provide powerful evidence that the gender difference in depression emerges earlier than previously thought (by at least age 12 for diagnoses, at age 12 for symptoms), which has important implications for the timing of preventive interventions.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“These results differ from those of Hankin and colleagues (1998), who found that that the gender gap in major depression emerged between ages 13 and 15 and then widened between ages 15 and 18.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hankin and colleagues (1998)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This pattern is a new finding and should be robust because it is based on large-scale meta-analyses and was consistent across both diagnosis and symptom measures.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Load-bearingStrength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In particular, individuals who are high in negative affectivity and low on positive affectivity are vulnerable to later depression.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“According to this model, the gender difference in depression in adolescence may be accounted for by (a) higher levels of negative cognitive style in girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; (b) higher levels of stress for girls than boys beginning in early adolescence; or (c) both.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This emphasizes the consistency with which females have higher levels major depression and depression symptoms than males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, early puberty is disadvantageous for girls but not boys, for outcomes such as depression (Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Ge, Conger, & Elder, 2001 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The difference in findings may be due to the greater recency of many of our studies, the greater number of nations, or the inclusion of multiple measures of depression symptoms.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“A third possibility results from the observation that depression is a recurrent disorder (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Men may be less likely to develop depression than women; however, this does not mean that depressed men are not distressed and impaired.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, gender equity measures were missing for some nations; thus, the analyses did not capture patterns among all nations included.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“According to one theoretical account, temperament, present from infancy and early childhood, predicts later depression (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“For example, in the 21st century women constitute 47% of the U.S. labor force, compared to 30% in 1950 (Costello et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Costello et al., 2003
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Research suggests that negative cognitive style may not emerge as a stable trait until ages 9.5 to 12.5, and the cognitive vulnerability-stress interaction does not become a reliable predictor of depression until ages 13.5 to 14.5, i.e., in early adolescence (Cole et al., 2008).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Cole et al., 2008 source
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Thus the gender difference in depression is created at least in part by girls who go through puberty early, because of any of several processes, such as early-puberty girls encountering more peer sexual harassment than boys and on-time girls (Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lindberg, Grabe, & Hyde, 2007 source
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“For example, the typical assessment of symptoms often represents a short period of time, such as a week, whereas diagnoses involve aggregation over longer periods, often a year (Haeffel et al., 2003).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Comparison of the Diagnosis and Symptom Findings
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Haeffel et al., 2003 source
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As such, it may be that most first cases of depression occur in adolescence, and then recur at variable times in adulthood, as a result of the uneven timing of major stressors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“As noted earlier, theories guided by developmental psychopathology have focused on explaining the emergence of the gender difference in adolescence (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b), but did not attend to development across adulthood.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An OR of 1.95 is a medium, not a large, effect size, yet it is still a health disparity.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Magnitude of the Gender Difference in Depression
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Another theoretical account rests on cognitive vulnerability-stress models of depression, which have been well supported in samples of college students and adults (summarized by Hyde et al., 2008b).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Hyde et al., 2008b
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:boosted· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Again, prevalence would remain stable across adulthood for both women and men, leading to a stable gender gap, created by the original gender gap in adolescence.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > The Developmental Pattern of Gender Differences in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes? Based: unclearIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Given that depression is a global health priority (World Health Organization, 2016), it is imperative to understand disparities in depression and which subgroups are most in need of services.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites World Health Organization, 2016
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, assuming equal numbers of males and females, an OR = 2.0 can result from a 9.05% prevalence in females and a 4.85% prevalence in males, or from an 18% prevalence in females and a 10.1% prevalence in males.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Results indicated high agreement between the two; for major depressive disorder, kappa = 0.97, with 99.7% agreement between the two sources (see also Brugha, Nienhuis, Bagchi, Smith, & Meltzer, 1999).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We also made extensive efforts to obtain data for as many national data sets as possible by conducting additional computerized searches and contacting authors.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Moreover, mounting a study based on a nationally representative sample is a major, costly undertaking that should almost certainly result in multiple publications, at least one of them in English, so we should have detected such studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes? Checkable: unclear✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, perhaps counterintuitively, gender differences were larger in nations with more gender equity, a finding that was consistent across three indicators.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, focusing on large, nationally representative datasets meant that the diagnostic interviews for major depression were conducted not by skilled clinicians, but instead by trained lay interviewers, as is standard practice in these large-scale, epidemiological studies.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Third, both diagnostic measures and symptom questionnaire measures rely on self-reports from participants.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Yet, as noted in the introduction, some primary studies have found similar patterns to ours regarding gender differences and gender equity, for outcomes such as self-construals (Guimond et al., 2007) and emotion (Fischer, Rodriguez Mosquera, van Vianen, & Manstead, 2004).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:correlational· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Guimond and colleagues (2007) proposed that gender differences in self-construals are larger in contexts in which individuals make intergroup social comparisons, e.g., when they compare themselves to an out-group such as the other gender.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Guimond and colleagues (2007)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These results suggest that women are at significantly greater risk of depression diagnoses and symptoms compared to men worldwide, and that adolescent girls are at the greatest risk.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is precisely in higher gender-equity nations, where males and females interact more (e.g., girls are more literate because they have more equal access to schooling with boys), that intergroup comparisons are likelier, leading to larger gender differences.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Fourth, our database search included only articles in English.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses, however, were based on small numbers of studies. Therefore, power to detect ethnic-group differences was limited.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Additional Factors Influencing the Gender Difference in Depression
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In low-gender-equity nations, intergroup interactions are often greatly restricted, and gender differences on a variable such as depression are smaller due to mostly intragroup comparisons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedCausal:direct· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes? Load-bearing: unclear✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, we did not have sufficient data to examine gender differences in major depression for children younger than age 12 (and we had only 2 samples for age 12), even though the minimum age criterion was 7.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If there are gender differences in willingness to disclose symptoms, then the resulting data may be biased.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Strength:hedged· not yet calibratedCausal:conditional· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✗ Based: failsProbably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the difference between these odds ratios is small, and the 95% confidence intervals overlap, suggesting that this difference is not a major effect.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Cross-national Variations
Load-bearingStrength:hedged· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“One early review concluded that the gender difference in depression is a real difference and not a measurement artifact (Weissman & Klerman, 1977).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Weissman & Klerman, 1977
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
Strength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✗ Asserted: fails✓ Checkable: passes✗ Load-bearing: fails✓ Based: passesProbably not a substantial claim. The authors may not put it forward as true. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We believe that this did not lead to the omission of nations in which English is not the predominant language for two reasons.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Load-bearingStrength:plain· not yet calibratedTests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The emphasis on adolescents is particularly important because depression is a recurring disorder, so an episode in adolescence can predispose the individual to later episodes (e.g., Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000).”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Implications for Policy
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, Klein, & Gotlib, 2000 source
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The gender difference in depression represents a major health disparity, especially in adolescence, yet the magnitude of the difference indicates that depression in males should not be overlooked.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Conclusions
Tests✓ Asserted: passes✓ Checkable: passes✓ Load-bearing: passes✓ Based: passesIt may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
§ Gender Differences in Depression in Representative National Samples: Meta-Analyses of Diagnoses and Symptoms > Discussion > Strengths and Limitations
Not yet classified.
The paper relies on this without support.
The existing literature on gender differences in depression had not been meta-analytically synthesized before this study.
“this large body of sometimes inconsistent research has yet to be synthesized meta-analytically.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The domain-specific gender equity indicators chosen are theoretically linked to gender differences in depression.
“We selected domain-specific indicators of gender equity (rather than composite indicators) that should, theoretically, be tied to gender differences in depression”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The mixed-effects model used for moderator analyses assumes that variability among effect sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (error variance).
“The mixed-effects model assumes that variability among effects sizes beyond subject-level sampling error has both systematic components (accounted for by moderator variables) and random components (i.e., error variance).”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nationally representative samples included in the meta-analyses accurately represent their target national populations.
“By synthesizing nationally representative studies with data from over 1.7 million participants spanning the globe in each of the two meta-analyses, we have provided a comprehensive quantitative review of data on gender differences in major depression diagnoses and depression symptoms across the lifespan.”
The paper relies on this without support.
The nation-level indicators of gender equity and national wealth validly measure those constructs.
“For major depression diagnoses, variability in the gender difference in depression was linked to measures of national wealth and gender equity.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Women are more likely than males to experience recurring MDD 445 and are twice as likely to experience MDD throughout their lifetimes. 446”
From Major depressive disorder: hypothesis, mechanism, prevention and treatment (2024) · cites this paper as [446]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“and the risk of certain mental health problems such as depression, self-harm, and eating disorders is higher in adolescent females than in males27.”
From Windows of developmental sensitivity to social media (2022) · cites this paper as [27]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Considering studies from only the old analyses, we found that females have more symptoms, diagnoses, or feelings of depression in countries with higher living conditions (Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“As has often been reported, females have in most studies been found to have higher rates of Depression (SMDs = 0.19–0.38; Hopcroft & Bradley, 2007; Hopcroft & McLaughlin, 2012; Salk et al., 2017; Seedat et al., 2009; Van de Velde et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2016).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Given the well-established associations of sex and sedentary screen time with depression symptoms, 43,44”
From Associations of time spent on homework or studying with nocturnal sleep behavior and depression symptoms in adolescents from Singapore (2020) · cites this paper as [44]
In the citing paper
“Even in clinical trials, there is a variability in how the different levels of severity of depression are defined. 66,67”
From Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission (2022) · cites this paper as [66]
In the citing paper
“Adolescence is a period of significant vulnerability to the emergence of mental health disorders.(1) In particular, it is a critical window for the emergence of internalizing (i.e., mood and anxiety) disorders, especially in girls.(2,3)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Meta-analyses show that during adolescence, girls’ risk for depression rises to double or more than that of boys -- a disparity in both symptoms and diagnoses that peaks in mid-late adolescence, and persists across most of the remaining lifespan (for a recent multinational meta-analysis, see (2)).”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“Layered atop these well-known developmental trajectories, a series of new findings indicate that rates of these adolescent-emergent mental health problems (depressive and anxiety disorders, NSSI, and suicidal thoughts and behaviors) have been increasing worldwide -- especially over the past decade, and most notably amongst girls.(2,20–23)”
From Puberty Initiates Cascading Relationships Between Neurodevelopmental, Social, and Internalizing Processes Across Adolescence (2021) · cites this paper as [2]
In the citing paper
“It should also be highlighted that the relationship between age and the prevalence of depressive symptoms might vary depending on depression severity (Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
In the citing paper
“The mild depressive symptoms category is under the cut-off value (10+) consistently proposed to determine the presence of depression using the PHQ-8 and, therefore, could be indicative of subclinical depression or depressive mood (Levis et al., 2019;Moriarty et al., 2015;Salk et al., 2017).”
From Prevalence and age patterns of depression in the United Kingdom. A population-based study (2021) · cites this paper as Salk et al., 2017
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentt(299) = 1961.63reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(299) = 1961.63, p < .001”
- Consistentt(412) = 9542.5reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“t(412) = 9542.50, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.
Conflicting percentages for researcher-supplied symptom data
MinorThe results state that 357 of 413 symptom effect sizes (86%) came from data obtained from authors, but the limitations section gives 76% for the same category.
“357 (86%) of the 413 effect sizes were based on obtained data.”
“Overall, 76% of the effect sizes for the symptom meta-analysis and 56% of the effect sizes for the diagnosis meta-analysis were based on data supplied by researchers, and not published in articles, reducing concerns about publication bias.”
Citations
Cites
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Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
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“…Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977); SCL-D Symptom Checklist-90- Depression items (Derogatis et al., 1973); HADS-D Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale- Depression subscale (Zigmond & Snaith, 1983); RADS Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (Reynolds, 1986); EURO-D (Prince et al., 1999); MHI-D…”
The PHQ-9: Validity of a brief depression severity measure
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An inventory for measuring depression
BECK, A. T. (1961) · Archives of General Psychiatry · doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004 · Cited by 38,032 · cited 2×
“…American, 4 85% Asian American, 5 85% Hispanic; F focus of article: 1 gender, 2 depression, 3 other; a received additional data from author; BDI Beck Depression Inventory (Beck et al., 1961, 1996); DMI Depressive Mood Inventory (see Abebe et al., 2016); CDI Children’s Depression Inventory…”
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Flagged first, then by citations
4 of the 276 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 501–600 of 2,611
McNeilly, E. A., Saragosa‐Harris, N. M., Mills, K. L., Dahl, R. E., & Magis‐Weinberg, L. (2022) · Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.dcn.2022.101172 · Cited by 25
Ori, A. P. S., Wieling, M. B., & van Loo, H. M. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.11.040 · Cited by 24
Jin, Y., Zhou, X., Deng, L., Xiong, X., Li, Y., Wei, Q., Dong, B., & Qiu, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.1038573 · Cited by 22
The Mental Health of Swiss Elite Athletes
Röthlin, P., Horvath, S., Ackeret, N., Peter, C., & Birrer, D. (2023) · Swiss Psychology Open · doi:10.5334/spo.49 · Cited by 22
“This is consistent with findings from other studies with athlete populations and the general population (e.g., Reardon et al., 2019; Salk et al., 2017).”
ResultTseng, H.-H., Lee, J., Geng, J., & Chen, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2023.1070827 · Cited by 26
“This difference remains relatively stable into adulthood, and even after menopause in women (14).”
BackgroundRaes, F., Griffith, J. W., Craeynest, M., Williams, J. M. G., Hermans, D., Barry, T. J., Takano, K., & Hallford, D. J. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10385-6 · Cited by 22
“Contrary to meta-analytic research showing small to moderate differences in depressive symptoms between men and and women (Salk et al., 2017),”
MethodResultQuyen, B., McKone, K. M. P., Hamilton, J. L., Stone, L. B., Ladouceur, C. D., & Silk, J. S. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579423001359 · Cited by 27
“…emotional disclosure to manage emotions (Rose & Rudolph, 2006), experience greater increases in negative affect during adolescence (Abitante et al., 2022; Griffith et al., 2021), and are at greater risk for developing depression (Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994; Salk et al., 2017) relative to boys.”
BackgroundRelative synonymous codon usage and codon pair analysis of depression associated genes
Khandia, R., Gurjar, P., Kamal, M. A., & Greig, N. H. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-51909-8 · Cited by 24
Stea, T. H., Bonsaksen, T., Smith, P., Kleppang, A. L., Steigen, A. M., Leonhardt, M., Lien, L., & Vettore, M. V. (2024) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-024-05696-1 · Cited by 26
“The responses to questions reflecting maternal and paternal education were collapsed and presented as low [1], medium [2] and high [3] parental education, in which high educational level for both parents was classified as high parental education.”
BackgroundGambin, M., Sekowski, M. M., Woźniak‐Prus, M., Wnuk, A., Oleksy, T., Cudo, A., Hansen, K., Huflejt-Łukasik, M., Kubicka, K., Łyś, A. E., et al. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/42m87 · Cited by 22
Risk prediction models for adolescent suicide: A systematic review and meta-analysis
Li, R., Yue, Y., Gu, X., Xiong, L., Luo, M., & Li, L. (2025) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2025.116405 · Cited by 26
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Less Social Support for Patients With COVID-19: Comparison With the Experience of Nurses
Li, Z., Ge, J., Feng, J., Jiang, R., Zhou, Q., Xu, X., Pan, Y., Liu, S., Gui, B., Wang, Z., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.554435 · Cited by 23
“Increasingly, evidence shows that gender is an independent predictor for mental disorders (25, 26).”
BackgroundThe Beck depression inventory: Uses and applications
Wang, Y., & Gorenstein, C. (2021) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-817933-8.00020-7 · Cited by 22
Determinantes socioeconómicos y brechas de género de la sintomatología depresiva en Chile
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Tadi, N. F., Pillay, K., Ejoke, U. P., & Khumalo, I. P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.873292 · Cited by 26
Wang, Y., Cao, P., Liu, F., Chen, Y., Xie, J., Bai, B., Liu, Q., Ma, H., & Geng, Q. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416412 · Cited by 23
“Biological factors and social disadvantage could be factors in this phenomenon [29].”
BackgroundMental health profiles of Finnish adolescents before and after the peak of the COVID-19 pandemic
Gustafsson, J., Lyyra, N., Jasinskaja‐Lahti, I., Simonsen, N., Lahti, H., Kulmala, M., Ojala, K., & Paakkari, L. T. (2023) · Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health · doi:10.1186/s13034-023-00591-1 · Cited by 34
Turchioe, M. R., Harkins, S., Desai, P., Kumar, S., Kim, J., Hermann, A. D., Joly, R., Zhang, Y., Pathak, J., & Benda, N. C. (2023) · JAMIA Open · doi:10.1093/jamiaopen/ooad048 · Cited by 20
“The prevalence of depression is twice as high in women compared to men.(9) Moreover, ethical considerations become more”
BackgroundSex-specific inflammatory markers of risk and presence of depression in adolescents
Zajkowska, Z., Nikkheslat, N., Manfro, P. H., Souza, L., Rohrsetzer, F., Viduani, A. C., Pereira, R. B., Piccin, J., Zonca, V., Walsh, A. E. L., et al. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.07.055 · Cited by 21
Graf, J., Simoes, E., Kranz, A., Weinert, K., & Abele, H. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21010013 · Cited by 25
“…on the high epidemiological significance of pain or the fact that vaccinations address the entire population as a preventive measure, it becomes clear that the health-care system plays a central role in maintaining gender-specific social inequality, which also entails high national economic costs.”
BackgroundSocial Norms, Social Connections, and Sex Differences in Adolescent Mental and Behavioral Health
Lombardi, C. M., Coley, R. L., Sims, J., Lynch, A. D., & Mahalik, J. R. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1253-7 · Cited by 21
The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716 · Cited by 24
Premenstrual disorders and gender differences in adolescent mental health
Li, Y., Jiang, J., Halldorsdottir, T., Zhu, H., Bertone‐Johnson, E. R., Valdimarsdóttir, U. A., Zhou, X., Zhang, W., & Lu, D. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.08.009 · Cited by 24
Lemke, T., Hökby, S., Wasserman, D., Carli, V., & Hadlaczky, G. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0293580 · Cited by 25
Time is of the essence: Age at autism diagnosis, sex assigned at birth, and psychopathology
Smith, J. V., McQuaid, G. A., Wallace, G. L., Neuhaus, E., Lopez, A., Ratto, A. B., Jack, A., Khuu, A., Webb, S. J., Verbalis, A. D., et al. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241249878 · Cited by 19
“Consistent with findings outside of autism (Jalnapurkar et al., 2018; Salk et al., 2017), findings suggest that sex differences in depressive symptoms in autistic individuals emerge with age (Solomon et al., 2012).”
Yan, N., Zhang, C., Wang, Y., Wang, Y., Luo, Y., Wang, Y., Shiferaw, B. D., Mackay, L. E., Wang, J., Tang, J. T., et al. (2025) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-025-02349-0 · Cited by 22
Nikkheslat, N., Zajkowska, Z., Legido‐Quigley, C., Xu, J., Manfro, P. H., Souza, L., Pereira, R. B., Rohrsetzer, F., Piccin, J., Viduani, A. C., et al. (2025) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2024.11.020 · Cited by 21
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“This interaction effect aligns with research documenting the emergence of gender disparities in depression during early adolescence [24].”
InfluentialRentería, R., Benjet, C. L., Gutiérrez–García, R. A., Ramírez, A. Á., Albor, Y., Borges, G. L. G., Couder, M. A. C. D., Durán, M. D. S., González, R. G., Saldaña, R. M. E. G., et al. (2020) · Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s00127-020-01943-4 · Cited by 20
“1 3 panic disorder) [14, 37, 38] and for male sexual minorities, more strongly associated with disorders more prevalent in males (substance use disorders) [16, 17].”
BackgroundDo, D.-H., McGuire, M. F., Jo, C.-H., & Kim, H. K. W. (2020) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/corr.0000000000001608 · Cited by 21
“Although there is no gender difference in the prevalence of depression in childhood, females are twice as likely on average to develop lifetime depression than males, where the difference reportedly starts in adolescence around age 13 [10, 38].”
BackgroundAgudelo‐Botero, M., Giraldo‐Rodríguez, L., Rojas-Russell, M. E., González-Robledo, M. C., Balderas-Miranda, J. T., Castillo-Rangel, D., & Dávila-Cervantes, C. A. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100206 · Cited by 20
Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors Among Children and Adolescents With Depression
Korczak, D. J., Cleverley, K., Birken, C. S., Pignatiello, T., Mahmud, F. H., & McCrindle, B. W. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.702737 · Cited by 21
“26%) in the sample, which is typical of adolescent depression (21).”
BackgroundDawson, G. C., Adrian, M. C., Chu, P. V., McCauley, E., & Stoep, A. V. (2022) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1080/15374416.2021.2019049 · Cited by 20
Systematic review and meta-analysis of predictors of adjustment disorders in adults
Kelber, M. S., Morgan, M. A., Beech, E. H., Smolenski, D. J., Bellanti, D. M., Galloway, L., Ojha, S., Otto, J. L., Wilson, A. L. G., Bush, N. E., et al. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.02.038 · Cited by 21
Tashiro, T., Maeda, N., Tsutsumi, S., Komiya, M., Arima, S., Mizuta, R., Fukui, K., Nishikawa, Y., & Urabe, Y. (2022) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-022-03997-x · Cited by 20
Mazza, M., Kotzalidis, G. D., Avallone, C., Balocchi, M., Sessa, I., De Luca, I., Hirsch, D., Simonetti, A., Janiri, D., Loi, E., et al. (2022) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm12101598 · Cited by 20
Age Trends in Bias-Based Bullying and Mental Health by Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
Fish, J. N., Bishop, M. D., & Russell, S. T. (2023) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-023-01530-4 · Cited by 28
“Our findings regarding early and persistent sex differences in depressive symptoms—across both heterosexual and sexual minority youth—align with recent meta-analyses that observe this gender disparity as young as age 12 across representative samples (Salk et al., 2017).”
ResultKhoury, R. E., & Nagy, C. (2023) · Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences · doi:10.3389/fmolb.2023.1154872 · Cited by 20
“This differential risk arises from a combination of physiological, psychological, and environmental, including cultural factors, with sex as a biological variable (SABV) as a central factor (Salk et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPaolini, M., Harrington, Y. A., Raffaelli, L., Poletti, S., Zanardi, R., Colombo, C., & Benedetti, F. (2023) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2023.07.010 · Cited by 22
Peng, D., Zheng, W., Liu, L., Jiang, W.-B., Li, Z., Lu, Y., & Lu, B. (2023) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ad085a · Cited by 19
“For example, females are twice as likely to suffer from depression than males [19, 20].”
Liu, Q., Yang, X., Zhang, C., & Xiong, J. (2024) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2024.00034 · Cited by 28
“To control for potential sex and age differences in depression (Salk, Hyde, & Abramson, 2017) and sleep disorders (Auer, Frauscher, Hochleitner, & Hoegl, 2018; da Cunha Silva Santiago et al., 2017), we included sex and age as covariables in the mediation analyses.”
MethodCunningham, S., Goff, C., Bagby, R. M., Stewart, J. G., Rocque, C. L. L., Mazurka, R., Ravindran, A. V., & Harkness, K. L. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.12.017 · Cited by 22
Haines, C., Loades, M. E., Coetzee, B., & Higson‐Sweeney, N. (2019) · International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health · doi:10.1515/ijamh-2019-0037 · Cited by 19
“Female gender has been identified as a risk factor for depression in the general population, including in Southern Africa [49], [50], [51], [52], as well as HIV-infected adults [53].”
BackgroundZhornitsky, S., Le, T. M., Dhingra, I., Adkinson, B. D., Potvin, S., & Li, C.-S. R. (2020) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12621 · Cited by 20
Neural connectivity biotypes: associations with internalizing problems throughout adolescence
Chahal, R., Weissman, D. G., Hallquist, M. N., Robins, R. W., Hastings, P. D., & Guyer, A. E. (2020) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s003329172000149x · Cited by 20
Chomchoei, C., Apidechkul, T., Keawdounglek, V., Wongfu, C., Khunthason, S., Kullawong, N., Tamornpark, R., Upala, P., & Yeemard, F. (2020) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04273 · Cited by 14
The epidemiology of cognitive development
Guez, A., Peyre, H., Williams, C. M., Labouret, G., & Ramus, F. (2020) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2021.104690 · Cited by 28
Sipowicz, K., Podlecka, M., Mokros, Ł., & Pietras, T. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147213 · Cited by 27
“The results of these studies are contrary to the attitude of contemporary gender and feminist movements [15].”
ResultGarcía‐Lara, R. A., Suleiman‐Martos, N., Membrive‐Jiménez, M. J., García‐Morales, V., Quesada-Caballero, M., Guisado-Requena, I. M., & Gómez‐Urquiza, J. L. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12123094 · Cited by 23
Copenhaver, A. E., & LeGates, T. A. (2024) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.0100-24.2024 · Cited by 29
Prevalence of depressive disorders among the very old in the 21st century
Corneliusson, L., Gustafson, Y., & Olofsson, B. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.07.062 · Cited by 24
Costs and cost-drivers of a diagnosis of depression among adults with epilepsy in the United States
Lekoubou, A., Bishu, K. G., & Ovbiagele, B. I. (2019) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2019.04.047 · Cited by 19
Sommer, J. L., El-Gabalawy, R. M., Contractor, A. A., Weiss, N. H., & Mota, N. P. (2020) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102247 · Cited by 19
Sex-related patterns of the gut-microbiota-brain axis in the neuropsychiatric conditions
Manosso, L. M., Lin, J. H. X., Carlessi, A. S., Recco, K. C. C., Quevedo, J., Gonçalves, C. L., & Réus, G. Z. (2021) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2021.04.001 · Cited by 23
Rahman, F., Coull, B. A., Carroll, K. N., Wilson, A., Just, A. C., Kloog, I., Zhang, X., Wright, R. J., & Chiu, Y.-H. M. (2021) · Environmental Research · doi:10.1016/j.envres.2021.112583 · Cited by 18
Magson, N. R., Zalk, N. V., Mörtberg, E., Chard, I., Tillfors, M., & Rapee, R. M. (2022) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2022.102537 · Cited by 20
The Association Between Men’s Mental Health During COVID-19 and Deterioration in Economic Status
Hadar‐Shoval, D., Alon-Tirosh, M., Asraf, K., Tannous-Haddad, L., & Tzischinsky, O. (2022) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221082427 · Cited by 20
“Women tend to report higher levels of anxiety (McLean et al., 2011), depression (Salk et al., 2017), stress (Matud, 2004), adjustment disorder (Lorenz et al., 2019), and eating problems (Hallama et al., 2016) than men.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialLongitudinal Associations Between Reward Responsiveness and Depression Across Adolescence
Mackin, D. M., Goldstein, B. L., Mumper, E. E., Kujawa, A., Kessel, E. M., Olino, T. M., Nelson, B. D., Hajcak, G., & Klein, D. N. (2023) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2022.11.013 · Cited by 18
Dong, X., Li, D., Miao, Y.-F., Zhang, T., Wu, Y., & Pan, C. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.04.034 · Cited by 19
“Numerous studies have demonstrated that the occurrence and development of depression and depressive symptoms are significantly correlated with socioeconomic demographic variables, including age, gender, ethnicity, residency, education level, monthly income and status of living alone (Liu et al., 2022; Lu et al., 2021;…”
Effort-cost decision-making in psychotic and mood disorders.
Moran, E. K., Prevost, C., Culbreth, A. J., & Barch, D. M. (2023) · Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science · doi:10.1037/abn0000822 · Cited by 23
Chen, C., Lan, Y., Wang, Z., Yan, W., Yan, X., & Han, J. (2023) · Journal of Endocrinological Investigation · doi:10.1007/s40618-023-02176-3 · Cited by 19
Ruminative Variability Predicts Increases in Depression and Social Anxiety
Bean, C. A. L., & Ciesla, J. A. (2023) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-023-10451-z · Cited by 20
“All longitudinal models included biological sex as a covariate due to the well-documented sex differences in ruminative tendencies (Salk et al., 2017).”
Sex-specific resting state brain network dynamics in patients with major depressive disorder
Dong, D., Pizzagalli, D. A., Bolton, T. A. W., Ironside, M., Zhang, X., Li, C., Sun, X., Xiong, G., Cheng, C., Wang, X., et al. (2024) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/s41386-024-01799-1 · Cited by 19
“Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a prevalent psychiatric disorder with higher prevalence in females than males [1].”
Zeng, Y., Li, W., Chen, X., You, Z., Mai, S., Lan, X., Ning, Y., & Zhou, Y. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.078 · Cited by 19
Unique cardiometabolic factors in women that contribute to modified cardiovascular disease risk
Hetherington, K., Thomas, J., Nicholls, S. J., Barsha, G., & Bubb, K. J. (2024) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2024.177031 · Cited by 21
Masculinity norms and occupational role orientations in men treated for depression
Kilian, R., Mueller‐Stierlin, A. S., Söhner, F., Beschoner, P., Gündel, H., Staiger, T., Stiawa, M., Becker, T. M., Frasch, K., Panzirsch, M., et al. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0233764 · Cited by 22
Depression Levels Influence the Rate of Asthma Exacerbations in Females
Papaporfyriou, A., Tseliou, E., Mizi, E., Xenia, N., Eygenia, P., Souliotis, K. N., Dimakou, K., Bakakos, P., Loukides, S., & Hillas, G. (2021) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm11060586 · Cited by 21
“45 for anxiety and depression, respectively [15].”
Kim, S., Lee, K. H., Lee, H., Jeon, J. E., Lee, M. H., Lee, J., Oh, S.-M., Lee, Y. J., & Kim, S. J. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2021.12.072 · Cited by 18
Struggling with Happiness: A Pathway Leading Depression to Gambling Disorder
Rogier, G., Picci, G., & Velotti, P. (2019) · Journal of Gambling Studies · doi:10.1007/s10899-018-09825-w · Cited by 20
Work-Life Balance and Mental Health Outcomes for Generation Z in Germany
Adedeji, A., Langel, C., Feick, A., Greibaum, M.-S. B., Rahimi, M., & Hanft-Robert, S. (2023) · Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1097/jom.0000000000002934 · Cited by 27
“23 Concerning WLB among men and women, existing research findings are contradictory.”
Resultde Looze, M. E., Cosma, A. P., Elgar, F. J., Schrijvers, K., Inchley, J., Walsh, S. D., & Stevens, G. W. J. M. (2024) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/jcpp.14081 · Cited by 23
“One of the most consistent findings in the field of adolescent mental health is the gender gap, with girls reporting higher levels of internalising problems than boys (e.g. Chen, Cai, He, & Fan, 2020; Cosma et al., 2023; Salk, Hyde, & Abramson, 2017).”
Yang, K., Fang, Y., He, J., & Li, J. (2025) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2025.1660478 · Cited by 28
“This is consistent with broader evidence indicating that women have approximately double the risk of developing depression (61 – 64), potentially due to hormonal fl uctuations (61), caregiving roles (62), emotional processing differences, and structural determinants such as the disproportionate…”
Behavioral Inhibition as a Precursor to Psychopathology
Klein, D. N., & Mumper, E. E. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_13 · Cited by 22
School Tracking and Mental Health
Böckerman, P., Haapanen, M., Jepsen, C. A., & Roulet, A. (2020) · Journal of Human Capital · doi:10.1086/712728 · Cited by 18
“The medical literature shows that the likelihood of mental health disorders differs substantially by gender (Salk et al., 2017), and thus analyses are separately done for both genders.”
BackgroundDietary and metabolic risk of neuropsychiatric disorders: insights from animal models
Liang, Y., Zou, L., Tian, Y., Zhou, S., Chen, X., & Lin, C. (2021) · British Journal Of Nutrition · doi:10.1017/s0007114521000659 · Cited by 20
Rosenqvist, E., Kiviruusu, O. H., & Konttinen, H. M. (2021) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2021.105795 · Cited by 25
Porter, C., Hittmeyer, A., Favara, M., Scott, D., & Sánchez, A. (2022) · Public Health in Practice · doi:10.1016/j.puhip.2022.100232 · Cited by 21
“Substantial pre-pandemic evidence indicates that women report worse mental health than men [8] and one study observes a widening gender gap early in the pandemic, among university students in Poland [9].”
Amendola, S., Hengartner, M. P., Ajdacic‐Gross, V., Angst, J., & Wulf Rössler, A. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.01.101 · Cited by 23
Assessing the depression risk in the U.S. adults using nomogram
Zhang, Y., Tian, W., Han, X., Yan, G., Ma, Y., Huo, S., Shi, Y., Dai, S., Ni, X., Li, Z., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-12798-6 · Cited by 18
“In our model 1, demographic variables including female, age between 50 and 59 years, the educational level below high school, unmarried and lower-income were found to be associated with depression, which is in line with other studies [7, 5, 9].”
BackgroundResultZheng, H., & Jia, C. (2022) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2022.03.007 · Cited by 20
Jiang, Y., Qin, M., Teng, T., Li, X., Yu, Y., Wang, J., Wu, H., He, Y., Zhou, X., & Xie, P. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.929207 · Cited by 19
“47 for 16 years of age) in depression (7).”
BackgroundVallières, F., Murphy, J., McBride, O., Shevlin, M. E., Gilmore, B., Travers, Á., Nolan, A., Butter, S., Karatzias, T., Bentall, R. P., et al. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13954-8 · Cited by 19
“For example, while greater sex differences are found in nations with greater gender equity [2], inter-cohort narrowing on levels of major depression and substance misuse have also been noted in the context of changes to the traditionality of female gender roles [3].”
BackgroundClass climate, adolescent financial and academic strain, and depressive symptoms
Wang, L., & Jiang, S. (2022) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.081 · Cited by 18
Xu, Z., Zhao, W., Wang, H., Tian, Y., & Xu, L. (2023) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2023.01.023 · Cited by 18
Theron, L. C., Höltge, J., & Ungar, M. T. (2023) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579423000494 · Cited by 21
“In addition, and as documented in non-African studies (Salk et al., 2017), Nyundo et al.”
Sex Differences in Pain and Quantitative Sensory Testing in Patients With Rheumatoid Arthritis
Vogel, K. A., Muhammad, L. N., Song, J., Neogi, T., Bingham, C. O., Bolster, M. B., Marder, W., Wohlfahrt, A., Clauw, D. J., Dunlop, D. D., et al. (2023) · Arthritis Care & Research · doi:10.1002/acr.25178 · Cited by 19
“Furthermore, sex/gender differences in psychological factors (e.g., coping, catastrophizing, affect), as well as societal in fl uences on gender role expectations may have a large impact on pain (44).”
BackgroundGaffey, A. E., & Spatz, E. S. (2024) · Current Atherosclerosis Reports · doi:10.1007/s11883-023-01185-0 · Cited by 21
“Primordial and primary IHD prevention could begin in adolescence and young adulthood, when psychological health concerns become more common for younger women versus their male peers [133, 134], and include education about psychological symptoms and awareness along with risk factors for future IHD.”
Narita, Z. C., Hidese, S., Kanehara, R., Tachimori, H., Hori, H., Kim, Y., Kunugi, H., Arima, K., Mizukami, S., Tanno, K., et al. (2024) · Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1016/j.clnu.2024.04.017 · Cited by 19
Misaki, M., Tsuchiyagaito, A., Guinjoan, S. M., Rohan, M. L., & Paulus, M. P. (2024) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-024-03066-9 · Cited by 22
Lazarevic, V., Crovetto, F., & Shapiro, A. F. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.10.006 · Cited by 21
Lepore, S. J., & Kliewer, W. L. (2019) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000234 · Cited by 18
“…prior literature, we found that relative to males, females were at lower risk for overt physical victimization (Casper & Card, 2017), higher risk for depressive symptoms (Salk et al., 2017), and more psychologically vulnerable to peer victimization (Bond, Carlin, Thomas, Rubin, & Patton, 2001).”
BackgroundResultReinecke, K. C. H., Dvoretska, D., Joraschky, P., & Lausberg, H. (2020) · Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy · doi:10.1007/s10879-020-09465-5 · Cited by 18
“2017) and depression (Salk et al. 2017) are associated with the female gender.”
BackgroundDelvecchio, G., Maggioni, E., Pigoni, A., Crespo‐Facorro, B., Nenadić, I., Benedetti, F., Christian Gaser, B., Sauer, H., Roiz‐Santiáñez, R., Poletti, S., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.622054 · Cited by 18
“Also, strong sex-dependent differences are well described in major depression in terms of prevalence, symptoms (Salk et al., 2017), and neurobiological alterations (Yang et al.”
BackgroundHypertension and Hypercholesterolemia Modify Dementia Risk in Relation to APOE ɛ4 Status
Pillai, J. A., Kou, L., Bena, J., Penn, L., & Leverenz, J. B. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-201609 · Cited by 20
Sexual and physical abuse and depressive symptoms in the UK Biobank
Chaplin, A. B., Jones, P. B., & Khandaker, G. M. (2021) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-021-03207-0 · Cited by 26
“ity in risk for depression between men and women peaks in adolescence [55], although it is unclear how much childhood sexual/physical abuse contributes to this disparity.”
BackgroundSamrock, S., Kline, K. M., & Randall, A. K. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18157938 · Cited by 20
“, selfcompassion [38] and depression [39]), it is possible that gender differences would be present in the current study if a more diverse study sample was collected.”
BackgroundGagne, C., Piot, A., & Brake, W. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.797577 · Cited by 18
“A cross-national comparison revealed that women aren’t at even more increased risk for depression in countries where sex inequalities are more marked (5) although some caveats were noted in the analysis.”
BackgroundMacałka, E., Tomaszek, K., & Kossewska, J. (2022) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci12030157 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Salk, R. H., Hyde, J. S., & Abramson, L. Y.
- Affiliations
- University of Wisconsin–Madison (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2017-08
- Volume
- 143
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 783-822
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- PMC
- PMC5532074
- OpenAlex
- W2609632515
- Cited by
- 2,622
- References
- 276
- Citations by year
- 2026: 352 · 2025: 420 · 2024: 403 · 2023: 354 · 2022: 388 · 2021: 308 · 2020: 261 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 8
- FWCI
- 153.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Science Foundation (DGE-071823; DRL 1138114)
- National Institute of Mental Health (T32 MH018269-30)
- University of Wisconsin-Madison
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Mental Health Treatment and Access
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
- Keywords
- gender differences, depression, depressive symptoms, adolescence, lifespan development, gender equity, cross-national comparison, health disparities, men's mental health
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Depression, Major Depressive Disorder, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Sex Factors, Young Adult
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