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Cited by 931Child Abuse and TraumaChild and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional DevelopmentIntimate Partner and Family Violence

Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.

Open access
Gershoff, Elizabeth T., Grogan-Kaylor, Andrew·2016·Journal of Family Psychology
DOI 10.1037/fam0000191PMC PMC7992110
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Abstract

Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/fam0000191

Cites

104 of 104 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Claims the paper makes

4 of 37 cited sources checked · 4 supported · 0 flagged

  • Premisecitation

    Cross-lagged studies have demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children's behavior over and above initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.

    “A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim2 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Berlin et al., 2009 source
    • cites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
    • cites McLeod et al., 1994

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Findingown data

    The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.

    “The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingown data

    The authors' meta-analyses, restricted to spanking, pooled 111 unique effect sizes from 160,927 children.

    “Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Thirteen of the 17 mean effect sizes in the meta-analyses were statistically different from zero.

    “Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data

    Only 75 studies met all four inclusion criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.

    “Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 40
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 8
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 1

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Analysis of a national randomized controlled trial of Head Start found that parents significantly reduced their spanking, which was linked with decreases in child aggression over time.

    “analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Both spanking and physical abuse involve parents intentionally hitting and hurting children, albeit to different degrees.

    “Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim1 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff, 2013 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In the seven-study comparison, the weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25 and for physical abuse was d = .38; both were significantly different from zero and positive.

    “The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
    • Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
      “Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The largest effect size was for physical abuse; more spanking was associated with greater risk that children would be physically abused by their parents.

    “The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In childhood, parental spanking was significantly associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing and internalizing problems, mental health problems, negative parent-child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.

    “In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Three childhood outcomes were not significantly associated with spanking: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low self-regulation.

    “Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    In adulthood, prior experiences of parental spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and positive attitudes about spanking.

    “In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
    • Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
      “Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    All moderator comparisons across the seven study-level characteristics were nonsignificant, indicating that effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.

    “All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
    • Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
      “Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The individual studies were highly consistent: 71% of all effect sizes and 99% of significant effect sizes indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.

    “An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Of the 111 effect sizes, 102 were in the detrimental direction and 78 of those were statistically significant; nine were in the beneficial direction, with only one statistically different from zero.

    “Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The overall mean weighted effect size across all 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38, and was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.

    “The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined, and each significant association was in the direction of greater detrimental child outcomes.

    “Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
    • Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
      “Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The meta-analysis included 111 unique effect sizes drawn from 204,410 child measurement occasions and 160,927 unique children.

    “A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingreasoning

    These studies yielded 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.

    “Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingown data

    Every mean effect size indicated that spanking was associated with a higher risk of detrimental child outcomes.

    “Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The analyses did not find support for contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when combined with abusive methods or only in methodologically weak studies.

    “These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective, but effect sizes for longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from those for cross-sectional studies.

    “While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than Gershoff's (2002) overall mean effect size, d = .40, but still statistically significant.

    “The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff (2002) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data

    The meta-analyses found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and found spanking associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.

    “The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Both the less severe and harsh physical punishment effect sizes were significant and positive, indicating that both were associated with more undesirable child outcomes.

    “However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Longitudinal bivariate coefficients are methodologically stronger than within-time coefficients, though not a perfect solution.

    “Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each author, with agreement reached to at least the third decimal place.

    “All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.

    “The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The four earlier meta-analyses of physical punishment used different article sets and reached inconsistent conclusions: Gershoff (2002) found it largely ineffective and harmful, Larzelere and Kuhn (2005) found it effective under some circumstances, and Ferguson (2013) and Paolucci and Violato (2004) found only modest links to cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems.

    “Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff, 2002 source
    • cites Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

    • cites Ferguson, 2013 source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    In the second coding step, each of the 558 potential studies was coded independently by each author, and coding disagreements were resolved through follow-up discussion.

    “In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Interpretationcitation

    The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in Gershoff (2002).

    “The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Gershoff (2002) source

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductnone given

    When effect-size calculation discrepancies occurred, they were discussed and each author independently recalculated until consensus was reached.

    “When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    The uniqueness of the Tennant et al. sample limits the generalizability of its beneficial finding and may explain why it is an outlier.

    “While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Across the earlier meta-analyses, physical punishment was associated with negative child outcomes, especially when outcomes were analyzed in finer-grained categories rather than broad ones.

    “Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Ferguson, 2013 source
    • cites Gershoff, 2002 source
    • cites Paolucci & Violato, 2004 source

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    The only study with a significant beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.

    “The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Experimentally manipulated spanking is likely to occur under unusual circumstances, raising concern that such experiments may lack external validity.

    “The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    Parents' use of spanking cannot be easily or ethically studied experimentally because children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with different predispositions to spank, and parents cannot typically be randomly assigned to spank or not.

    “However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Two main criticisms of past meta-analyses were that spanking had been confounded with potentially abusive parenting in some studies and that spanking had been linked to detrimental outcomes only in methodologically weak studies.

    “Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002 source
    • cites Ferguson, 2013 source
    • cites Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning

    None of the studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children's behavior over time.

    “None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The association between spanking and physical abuse only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.

    “the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than weaker studies, lending more confidence to the main meta-analyses.

    “This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation

    Because a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship, the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.

    “given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Shadish et al., 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse.

    “many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Straus, 2001

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given

    Randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, so this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.

    “randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
    • Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductown data

    Most included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), so causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.

    “As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, supported by key methodologically strong studies that isolate spanking's ability to predict child outcomes over time.

    “Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Premisecitation

    A major concern is that reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask child-elicitation effects, where difficult children elicit more spanking rather than spanking causing problematic behavior.

    “A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 3 sources checked
    • cites Baumrind et al., 2002 source
    • cites Ferguson, 2013 source
    • cites Larzelere et al., 2004

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation

    Most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%) begin as responses to children's misbehavior, like all instances of spanking.

    “most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Durrant et al., 2006

      Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as weaker designs, suggesting the associations are robust to study design.

    “Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationown data

    The mean effect size for all studies (d = .33) is closer to the physical abuse mean (d = .38) than to the spanking mean from the 10 selected effect sizes (d = .25), indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes similar in magnitude and identical in direction.

    “However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
45 of 45

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Approximately 80% of children are spanked.

    “when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.

    “randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
2 of 2

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

  • The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.

    “The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)

    The Results section, “Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse” (page unavailable), reports different weighted mean effect sizes: d = .25 for spanking and d = .38 for physical abuse. The Discussion says their associations with detrimental child outcomes are similar in magnitude and identical in direction, but it does not support the claim that there was no effect-size difference. (LLM, conf=0.89)

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

  • Over five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations, and large meta-analyses provide converging evidence regarding harmful outcomes of corporal punishment, which include depression or depressed mood, antisocial behavior, substance use, suicidal ideations (including attempts) and self-injurious behavior.

    “Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”

    From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)

    Split into 2 atoms — 1 confirmed, 1 partially supported, 0 disputed, 0 misattributed, 0 unverifiable. Expand the claim to see per-atom verdicts.

    Experimental — accuracy not yet measured

Statistics recomputed

Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.

  • Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001

    “Z = 14.84, p < .001”

1 of 1

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.

Cites

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2 of the 106 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.

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Related

Authors
Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
Affiliations
The University of Texas at Austin (US)
ORCID
Gershoff, Elizabeth T.
Venue
Journal of Family Psychology
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2016
Volume
30
Issue
4
Pages
453-469
ISSN
  • 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
  • 1939-1293
DOI
10.1037/fam0000191
PMC
PMC7992110
OpenAlex
W2325391559
Semantic Scholar
0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
Cited by
931
References
106
Citations by year
2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18 · 2015: 1 · 2013: 1
FWCI
125.24
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
Locations
  • Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
Funders
Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
  • Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
Keywords
spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
MeSH terms
Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-09-28.

Classified by jev-1.13-20260917 (gold-guideline-v0.2) on 2026-09-28.

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Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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