Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the human brain. A pulsed magnetic field creates current flow in the brain and can temporarily excite or inhibit specific areas. TMS of motor cortex can produce a muscle twitch or block movement; TMS of occipital cortex can produce visual phosphenes or scotomas. TMS can also alter the functioning of the brain beyond the time of stimulation, offering potential for therapy.
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“9 ?”
Transcranial magnetic stimulation
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“Disruption of performance would provide evidence for the functional relevance of activity in the stimulated site for the specific behavior, information that is not provided by functional imaging studies alon”
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“The timing of stimulation can be varied during the execution of a task to demonstrate the time course of the involvement of a specific cortical area in that cognitive process (Hallett, 2000; Pascual-Leone et al., 2000).”
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“, 1985) is the method of choice for investigating central motor pathways in humans (Hallett, 2000; Rothwell, 1997).”
MethodImprovement of Motor Function with Noninvasive Cortical Stimulation in a Patient with Chronic Stroke
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“As a research tool, TMS has been applied in studies of brain mapping, motor cortex neurophysiology (Ziemann and Hallett 2000), and to understand language (Epstein et al 1996) and vision (Amassian et al 1989).”
BackgroundMethodHuman brain connectivity during single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation
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“In 4 patients in whom MRI was not available at the time of testing, the anode was centered on the optimal scalp position for activation of the paretic First Dorsal Interosseus (FDI) muscle using an 8-shaped TMS Magstim coil, a procedure that matches the projection of the anatomical hand knob [52].”
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“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) techniques provide a non-invasive opportunity of testing integrity and function of the intact human brain (Hallett, 2000).”
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“This can be achieved with transcranial magnetic stimulation, a widely used technique for motor control research and clinical testin”
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“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a technique that allows noninvasive focal stimulation of the human brain (Hallett 2000) and that, in particular settings, can enhance cortical reorganization (Ziemann et al. 1998a) and information processing (Boroojerdi et al. 2001; Flitmann et al. 1998).”
MethodReliability of motor cortex transcranial magnetic stimulation in four muscle representations.
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“The threshold for these neurons is higher either because they are less excitable or because they are further from the site of stimulation (Hallett, 2000).”
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“TMS therapy can inhibit or excite targeted brain regions, and applications of this technique may encourage stroke rehabilitation (Hallett, 2000; Fregni et al., 2006) without deteriorating motor performance in the non-affected hand (Fregni et al., 2006; Vines et al., 2008; Hoyer and Celnik, 2011).”
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“A strong magnetic field induces electrical current intracranially that can excite or inhibit neuronal activity depending on the stimulation parameters (15).”
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“The technique of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a well-established tool for inducing transient disruptions of neural activity (''virtual lesions'') noninvasively in human volunteers (Hallett 2000; Pascual-Leone et al. 2000; Walsh and Cowey 2000; George et al. 2002; Sack 2006).”
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Self-citationNon-invasive Brain Stimulation: A Paradigm Shift in Understanding Brain Oscillations
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“This fast change in magnetic field strength induces a current in cortical neurons which is oriented in parallel to the magnetic coil (Hallett, 2000, 2007).”
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Petersen, N. T., Pyndt, H., & Nielsen, J. (2003) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1537-y · Cited by 220 · see citing works
“The popularity of the technique is also reflected in a large number of recent reviews (Weber and Eisen 2002; Walsh and Cowey 2000; Cantello et al. 2002; Lisanby et al. 2000; Hallett 2000; Bailey et al. 2001; Siebner and Rothwell 2003).”
MethodMartella, G., Tassone, A., Sciamanna, G., Platania, P., Cuomo, D., Viscomi, M. T., Bonsi, P., Cacci, E., Biagioni, S., Usiello, A., et al. (2009) · Brain : a journal of neurology · doi:10.1093/brain/awp194 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
“Similar results were observed in patients with focal dystonia by using transcranial magnetic stimulation, a non-invasive tool to assess excitability of the motor system (Hallett, 2000).”
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and epilepsy.
Tassinari, C., Cincotta, M., Zaccara, G., & Michelucci, R. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(03)00004-x · Cited by 216 · see citing works
“However, it became more and more evident that TMS also provided a noninvasive evaluation of distinct excitatory and inhibitory functions of the human cerebral cortex (for review, see Hallett, 1996, 2000; Rossini and Rossi, 1998; Chen, 2000).”
BackgroundImage-Guided Focused Ultrasound-Mediated Regional Brain Stimulation in Sheep.
Lee, W., Lee, S. D., Park, M. Y., Foley, L., Purcell-Estabrook, E., Kim, H., Fischer, K., Maeng, L., & Yoo, S.-S. (2016) · Ultrasound in Medicine and Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ultrasmedbio.2015.10.001 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
rTMS enhances BDNF–TrkB signaling in both brain and lymphocyte
Wang, H.-Y., Crupi, D., Liu, J.-J., Stucky, A., Cruciata, G., Rocco, A. D., Friedman, E., Quartarone, A., & Ghilardi, M. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2125-11.2011 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“As it can be influenced by drugs affecting sodium and calcium channels, RMT value must indicate membrane excitability (Hallett, 2000) and, thus, could probably reflect mechanisms other than synaptic changes.”
BackgroundGangitano, M., Valero-Cabré, A., Tormos, J., Mottaghy, F., Romero, J. R., & Pascual-Leone, Á. (2002) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(02)00109-8 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
“…modulate cortical excitability by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been used in a growing number of neurophysiological (Hallett, 2000; Pascual-Leone et al., 1998), cognitive (Pascual-Leone et al., 1999, 2000; Walsh and Cowey, 2000) and clinical applications (George et…”
MethodMotor cortex excitability in Alzheimer's disease: A transcranial magnetic stimulation study
Ferreri, F., Pauri, F., Pasqualetti, P., Fini, R., Forno, G. D., & Rossini, P. M. (2002) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.10416 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Thielscher, A., & Kammer, T. (2002) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1006/nimg.2002.1282 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a widely used research tool in the neurosciences (Hallett, 2000; Walsh and Cowey, 2000).”
MethodKeck, M., Welt, T., Müller, M., Post, A., Sillaber, I., & Holsboer, F. (2001) · European psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s0924-9338(02)80193-6 · Cited by 211
A Direct Brain-to-Brain Interface in Humans
Rao, R. P. N., Stocco, A., Bryan, M., Sarma, D., Youngquist, T. M., Wu, J., & Prat, C. S. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0111332 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
“A variety of stimulation techniques also exist that permit users to encode digital information into neural activity using implanted electrodes [15,16], transcranial magnetic stimulation, (TMS, [17]) and focused ultrasound (FUS, [18]).”
BackgroundSchoenen, J., Ambrosini, A., Sandor, P., & de Noordhout, A. M. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(03)00024-5 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Closed-Loop Neuroscience and Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation: A Tale of Two Loops
Zrenner, C., Belardinelli, P., Müller-Dahlhaus, F., & Ziemann, U. (2016) · Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fncel.2016.00092 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
“…Health, USA Reviewed by: Gregor Thut, University of Glasgow, UK Giuseppe Sciamanna, University of Rome Torvergata, Italy *Correspondence: Christoph Zrenner christoph.zrenner@uni-tuebingen.de Received: 22 July 2015 Accepted: 23 March 2016 Published: 07 April 2016 Citation: Zrenner C, Belardinelli…”
BackgroundMethodParietal cortex and spatial cognition
Sack, A. T. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.03.012 · Cited by 203 · see citing works
Studying spontaneous EEG activity with fMRI
Salek‐Haddadi, A., Friston, K. J., Lemieux, L., & Fish, D. R. (2003) · Brain Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0165-0173(03)00193-0 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Examination of neural systems sub-serving facebook addiction
Turel, O., He, Q., Xue, G., Xiao, L., & Bechara, A. (2014) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/18.pr0.115c31z8 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
“Lastly, this study points to the possibility that some interventions, such as CBT or trans-cranial magnetic stimulation (Hallett, 2000), may be efficacious in treating Facebook “addiction.””
BackgroundActivity-dependent neural plasticity from bench to bedside
Ganguly, K., & Poo, M.-M. (2013) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.028 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Brain polarization enhances the formation and retention of motor memories.
Galea, J., & Celnik, P. (2009) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00184.2009 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
Effects of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on visual evoked potentials in migraine.
Bohotin, V., Fumal, A., Vandenheede, M., Gérard, P., Bohotin, C., de Noordhout, A. D., & Schoenen, J. (2002) · Brain : a journal of neurology · doi:10.1093/brain/awf081 · Cited by 202 · see citing works
“In the last decade, numerous studies on the effects of rTMS on cortical excitability have been performed (Berardelli et al., 1999; Klein et al., 1999b; Hallett, 2000; Maeda et al., 2000).”
BackgroundThéoret, H., Haque, J., & Pascual-Leone, Á. (2001) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(01)01860-2 · Cited by 201 · see citing works
Cortical and spinal abnormalities in psychogenic dystonia
Espay, A., Morgante, F., Purzner, J., Gunraj, C., Lang, A. E., & Chen, R. (2006) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.20837 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive way to stimulate the brain in human subjects.(20,21) With weak (subthreshold) conditioning pulse followed by a suprathreshold test pulse at short interstimulus intervals (ISIs; approximately 2 milliseconds) there occurs reduction of the size of the motor-evoked…”
BackgroundTransitions between dynamical states of differing stability in the human brain
Meyer‐Lindenberg, A., Ziemann, U., Hajak, G., Cohen, L. G., & Berman, K. F. (2002) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.162114799 · Cited by 186 · see citing works
Upper alpha ERD and absolute power: their meaning for memory performance.
Klimesch, W., Doppelmayr, M., & Hanslmayr, S. (2006) · Progress in Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(06)59010-7 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Transcranial magnetic stimulation in the treatment of substance addiction
Gorelick, D. A., Zangen, A., & George, M. S. (2014) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/nyas.12479 · Cited by 195 · see citing works
Influence of the pressure field distribution in transcranial ultrasonic neurostimulation.
Younan, Y., Deffieux, T., Larrat, B., Fink, M., Tanter, M., & Aubry, J. (2013) · Medical Physics (Lancaster) · doi:10.1118/1.4812423 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Human Motor Plasticity Induced by Mirror Visual Feedback
Nojima, I., Mima, T., Koganemaru, S., Thabit, M., Fukuyama, H., & Kawamata, T. (2012) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.5364-11.2012 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“Although the aMT, reflecting the neuronal membrane excitability levels in the M1 (Mavroudakis et al., 1994; Ziemann et al., 1996a; Hallett, 2000), was significantly decreased after mirror therapy, the change in the rMT failed to reach statistical significance.”
BackgroundBrain plasticity in the adult: modulation of function in amblyopia with rTMS.
Thompson, B., Mansouri, B., Koski, L., & Hess, R. F. (2008) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2008.06.052 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
“This method of measurement was used because it provided the best tradeoff between accuracy and speed of measurement as necessitated by the transient nature of rTMS effects [21].”
TMS in cognitive plasticity and the potential for rehabilitation.
Rossi, S., & Rossini, P. (2004) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.04.012 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
Nardone, R., Höller, Y., Brigo, F., Seidl, M., Christova, M., Bergmann, J., Golaszewski, S. M., & Trinka, E. (2013) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2012.12.034 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Transcranial magnetic stimulation techniques in clinical investigation
Currá, A., Modugno, N., Inghilleri, M., Manfredi, M., Hallett, M., & Berardelli, A. (2002) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/01.wnl.0000038744.30298.d4 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Self-citationBrain stimulation in the study and treatment of addiction
Feil, J., & Zangen, A. (2010) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.11.006 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Neural effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation at the single-cell level
Romero, M. C., Davare, M., Armendáriz, M., & Janssen, P. (2019) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-019-10638-7 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
Cole, E., Stimpson, K., Bentzley, B. S., Gulser, M., Cherian, K., Tischler, C., Nejad, R., Pankow, H., Choi, E., Aaron, H., et al. (2019) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/581280 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
- Authors
- Hallett, M.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hallett, Mark
- ORCID
- Hallett, Mark
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2000-07
- Volume
- 406
- Issue
- 6792
- Pages
- 147-150
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2129291496
- Cited by
- 1,603
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 71
- FWCI
- 4.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- transcranial magnetic stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, motor cortex, occipital cortex, muscle twitch, scotoma, brain therapy
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Forecasting, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Neuronal Plasticity, Evoked Potentials, Motor, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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