Molecular identification of a danger signal that alerts the immune system to dying cells
Abstract
In infections, microbial components provide signals that alert the immune system to danger and promote the generation of immunity. In the absence of such signals, there is often no immune response or tolerance may develop. This has led to the concept that the immune system responds only to antigens perceived to be associated with a dangerous situation such as infection. Danger signals are thought to act by stimulating dendritic cells to mature so that they can present foreign antigens and stimulate T lymphocytes. Dying mammalian cells have also been found to release danger signals of unknown identity. Here we show that uric acid is a principal endogenous danger signal released from injured cells. Uric acid stimulates dendritic cell maturation and, when co-injected with antigen in vivo, significantly enhances the generation of responses from CD8+ T cells. Eliminating uric acid in vivo inhibits the immune response to antigens associated with injured cells, but not to antigens presented by activated dendritic cells. Our findings provide a molecular link between cell injury and immunity and have important implications for vaccines, autoimmunity and inflammation.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Pattern recognition receptors on dendritic cells may include endocytic receptors that stimulate antigen uptake, such as scavenger receptors and C-type lectin receptors.
“Pattern recognition receptors (PRR) present on DC may include endocytic receptors that stimulate antigen uptake (including scavenger receptors and C-type lectin receptors)106.”
From Immunogenic and tolerogenic cell death (2009) · cites this paper as [106]
Reduction of uric acid is associated with substantially reduced neutrophil recruitment in the liver after acetaminophen-induced injury in two different mouse models.
“For example, a reduction of uric acid, which is released from dying cells and has adjuvant activity in vivo21, was associated with substantially reduced neutrophil recruitment in the liver after acetaminophen-induced injury in two different mouse models13.”
From Sterile inflammation: sensing and reacting to damage (2010) · cites this paper as [21]
Cites
Tolerance, Danger, and the Extended Family
Matzinger, P. (1994) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev.iy.12.040194.005015 · Cited by 4,848 · see citing works
Current Protocols in Immunology
(2018) · Current Protocols in Immunology · doi:10.1002/(issn)1934-368x · Cited by 3,574 · see citing works
Approaching the asymptote? Evolution and revolution in immunology.Preprint
Janeway, C. (1989) · Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology · doi:10.1101/sqb.1989.054.01.003 · Cited by 3,396 · see citing works
Dendritic cells acquire antigen from apoptotic cells and induce class I-restricted CTLs
Albert, M. L., Sauter, B., & Bhardwaj, N. (1998) · Nature · doi:10.1038/32183 · Cited by 2,350 · see citing works
Natural adjuvants: Endogenous activators of dendritic cells
Gallucci, S., Lolkema, M. P., & Matzinger, P. (1999) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/15200 · Cited by 1,601 · see citing works
Innate immune recognition: mechanisms and pathways
Medzhitov, R., & Janeway, C. (2000) · Immunological Reviews · doi:10.1034/j.1600-065x.2000.917309.x · Cited by 1,589 · see citing works
Current protocols in immunology
Nezlin, R. S. (1992) · Molecular Immunology · doi:10.1016/0161-5890(92)90114-d · Cited by 1,413 · see citing works
The immune system evolved to discriminate infectious nonself from noninfectious self
Janeway, C. A. (1992) · Immunology Today · doi:10.1016/0167-5699(92)90198-g · Cited by 1,343 · see citing works
Adjuvants—a classification and review of their modes of action
Cox, J. C., & Coulter, A. R. (1997) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(96)00183-1 · Cited by 686 · see citing works
The influence of temperature on the solubility of monosodium urate
Loeb, J. N. (1972) · Arthritis & Rheumatism · doi:10.1002/art.1780150209 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Immunological concepts of vaccine adjuvant activity
Schijns, V. E. C. J. (2000) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/s0952-7915(00)00120-5 · Cited by 330 · see citing works
Cells, tissues, and disease : principles of general pathology
Majno, G., & Joris, I. (1996) · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Cell injury releases endogenous adjuvants that stimulate cytotoxic T cell responses
Shi, Y., Zheng, W., & Rock, K. L. (2000) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.260497597 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Self-citationLong-term outcome and prognosis in oligoarticular-onset juvenile idiopathic arthritis
Guillaume, S., Prieur, A., Coste, J., & Job-Deslandre, C. (2000) · Arthritis & Rheumatism · doi:10.1002/1529-0131(200008)43:8 · Cited by 213 · see citing works
Safe disposal of inflammatory monosodium urate monohydrate crystals by differentiated macrophages
Landis, R. C., Yagnik, D. R., Florey, O., Philippidis, P., Emons, V. E., Mason, J. C., & Haskard, D. O. (2002) · Arthritis & Rheumatism · doi:10.1002/art.10614 · Cited by 164 · see citing works
Jeha, S. (2001) · Seminars in Hematology · doi:10.1016/s0037-1963(01)90037-x · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Overview of vaccine adjuvants: present and future
Hunter, R. L. (2002) · Vaccine · doi:10.1016/s0264-410x(02)00164-0 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Analysis of MHC class II presentation of particulate antigens of B lymphocytes
Vidard, L., Kovacsovics-Bankowski, M., Kraeft, S. K., et al. (1996) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.156.8.2809 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Factors affecting urate solubility in vitro.
Kippen, I., Klinenberg, J. R., Weinberger, A., et al. (1974) · Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases · doi:10.1136/ard.33.4.313 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Adhesion of uric acid crystals to the surface of renal epithelial cells
Koka, R., Huang, E., & Lieske, J. C. (2000) · American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajprenal.2000.278.6.f989 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
Studies of urate crystallisation in relation to gout.
Fiddis, R. W., Vlachos, N., & Calvert, P. (1983) · Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases · doi:10.1136/ard.42.suppl_1.12 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Gout and Uric Acid Metabolism.
(1977) · Annals of Internal Medicine · doi:10.7326/0003-4819-87-3-386_2 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Studies on the nucleation of monsodium urate at 37°C
Tak, H., Cooper, S. M., & Wilcox, W. R. (1980) · Arthritis & Rheumatism · doi:10.1002/art.1780230509 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Alleles of the KIR2DL4 receptor and their lack of association with pre-eclampsia
Witt, C. S., Whiteway, J. M., Warren, H. S., Barden, A. E., Rogers, M. A., Martin, A. M., Beilin, L. J., & Christiansen, F. T. (2002) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/1521-4141(200201)32:1 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Iwata, H., Nishio, S., Yokoyama, M., et al. (1989) · The Journal of Urology · doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)39003-1 · Cited by 54 · see citing works
Cells, Tissues, and Disease: Principles of General Pathology
Sommers, S. C. (1997) · JAMA · doi:10.1001/jama.1997.03540380084041 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Gout, Hyperuricemia, and Other Crystal-AsSociated Arthropathies
Smyth, C. J., & Holers, V. M. (1998) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 29 · see citing works
[Serum uric acid levels in disorders of the rheumatic type].
Bošmanský, K., & Trnavský, K. (1984) · PubMed · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Gout-associated uric acid crystals activate the NALP3 inflammasome
Martinon, F., Pétrilli, V., Mayor, A., Tardivel, A., & Tschopp, J. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature04516 · Cited by 5,326 · see citing works
Immunogenic cell death and DAMPs in cancer therapy
Krysko, D. V., Garg, A. D., Kaczmarek, A., Krysko, O., Agostinis, P., & Vandenabeele, P. (2012) · Nature Reviews Cancer · doi:10.1038/nrc3380 · Cited by 3,223 · see citing works
Apetoh, L., Ghiringhelli, F., Tesniere, A., Obeid, M., Ortiz, C., Criollo, A., Mignot, G., Maiuri, M. C., Ullrich, E., Saulnier, P., et al. (2007) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1622 · Cited by 3,056 · see citing works
Sterile inflammation: sensing and reacting to damage
Chen, G. Y., & Nuñez, G. (2010) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2873 · Cited by 3,051 · see citing works
DAMPs, PAMPs and alarmins: all we need to know about danger
Bianchi, M. E. (2007) · Journal of Leukocyte Biology · doi:10.1189/jlb.0306164 · Cited by 2,794 · see citing works
The Inflammasomes: Guardians of the Body
Martinon, F., Mayor, A., & Tschopp, J. (2009) · Annual Review of Immunology · doi:10.1146/annurev.immunol.021908.132715 · Cited by 2,436 · see citing works
Franchi, L., Eigenbrod, T., Muñoz-Planillo, R., & Nuñez, G. (2009) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.1703 · Cited by 1,834 · see citing works
How dying cells alert the immune system to danger
Kono, H., & Rock, K. L. (2008) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2215 · Cited by 1,737 · see citing works
Self-citationmTOR regulates memory CD8 T-cell differentiation
Araki, K., Turner, A. P., Shaffer, V. O., Gangappa, S., Keller, S. A., Bachmann, M. F., Larsen, C. P., & Ahmed, R. (2009) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature08155 · Cited by 1,575 · see citing works
Crucial role for the Nalp3 inflammasome in the immunostimulatory properties of aluminium adjuvants
Eisenbarth, S. C., Colegio, O. R., O’Connor, W., Sutterwala, F. S., & Flavell, R. A. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06939 · Cited by 1,542 · see citing works
The Liver as an Immunological Organ
Racanelli, V., & Rehermann, B. (2006) · Hepatology · doi:10.1002/hep.21060 · Cited by 1,377 · see citing works
Intravascular Danger Signals Guide Neutrophils to Sites of Sterile Inflammation
McDonald, B., Pittman, K., Menezes, G. B., Hirota, S. A., Slaba, I., Waterhouse, C. C. M., Beck, P. L., Muruve, D. A., & Kubes, P. (2010) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1195491 · Cited by 1,210 · see citing works
Adapting to obesity with adipose tissue inflammation
Reilly, S. M., & Saltiel, A. R. (2017) · Nature Reviews Endocrinology · doi:10.1038/nrendo.2017.90 · Cited by 1,204 · see citing works
Fuertes, M. B., Kacha, A. K., Kline, J., Woo, S.-R., Kranz, D. M., Murphy, K. M., & Gajewski, T. F. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Medicine · doi:10.1084/jem.20101159 · Cited by 1,192 · see citing works
Immunogenic and tolerogenic cell death
Green, D. R., Ferguson, T., Zitvogel, L., & Kroemer, G. (2009) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2545 · Cited by 1,176 · see citing works
Resolution of in flammation: state of the art, definitions and terms
Serhan, C. N., Brain, S. D., Buckley, C. D., Gilroy, D. W., Haslett, C., O'Neill, L. A. J., Perretti, M., Rossi, A. G., & Wallace, J. L. (2007) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.06-7227rev · Cited by 1,045 · see citing works
“Uric acid is the causative agent of gout but is also released by damaged cells, possibly as a general signal for inflammation (15).”
BackgroundAggregated neutrophil extracellular traps limit inflammation by degrading cytokines and chemokines
Schauer, C., Janko, C., Munoz, L. E., Zhao, Y., Kienhöfer, D., Frey, B., Lell, M., Manger, B., Rech, J., Naschberger, E., et al. (2014) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.3547 · Cited by 998 · see citing works
Towards an understanding of the adjuvant action of aluminium
Marrack, P., McKee, A. S., & Munks, M. W. (2009) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2510 · Cited by 887 · see citing works
TLRs, NLRs and RLRs: a trinity of pathogen sensors that co-operate in innate immunity
Creagh, E. M., & O’Neill, L. A. J. (2006) · Trends in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.it.2006.06.003 · Cited by 762 · see citing works
Mincle is an ITAM-coupled activating receptor that senses damaged cells
Yamasaki, S., Ishikawa, E., Sakuma, M., Hara, H., Ogata, K., & Saito, T. (2008) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.1651 · Cited by 740 · see citing works
Hyaluronan Fragments Act as an Endogenous Danger Signal by Engaging TLR2
Scheibner, K. A., Lutz, M. A., Boodoo, S., Fenton, M. J., Powell, J. D., & Horton, M. R. (2006) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.177.2.1272 · Cited by 708 · see citing works
The inflammasome: a danger sensing complex triggering innate immunity
Pétrilli, V., Dostert, C., Muruve, D. A., & Tschopp, J. (2007) · Current Opinion in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.coi.2007.09.002 · Cited by 700 · see citing works
Necrotic cells trigger a sterile inflammatory response through the Nlrp3 inflammasome
Iyer, S. S., Pulskens, W. P., Sadler, J. J., Butter, L. M., Teske, G. J., Ulland, T. K., Eisenbarth, S. C., Florquin, S., Flavell, R. A., Leemans, J. C., et al. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0908698106 · Cited by 691 · see citing works
Sterile inflammation in the liver
Kubes, P., & Mehal, W. Z. (2012) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/j.gastro.2012.09.008 · Cited by 666 · see citing works
Kazama, H., Ricci, J.-E., Herndon, J. M., Hoppe, G., Green, D. R., & Ferguson, T. A. (2008) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2008.05.013 · Cited by 627 · see citing works
Inside, outside, upside down: damage-associated molecular-pattern molecules (DAMPs) and redox
Rubartelli, A., & Lotze, M. T. (2007) · Trends in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.it.2007.08.004 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
Apoptosis and necroptosis in the liver: a matter of life and death
Schwabe, R. F., & Luedde, T. (2018) · Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1038/s41575-018-0065-y · Cited by 582 · see citing works
Triggering the succinate receptor GPR91 on dendritic cells enhances immunity
Rubic, T., Lametschwandtner, G., Jost, S., Hinteregger, S., Kund, J., Carballido-Perrig, N., Schwärzler, C., Junt, T., Voshol, H., Meingassner, J. G., et al. (2008) · Nature Immunology · doi:10.1038/ni.1657 · Cited by 525 · see citing works
Metabolomics and systems biology: making sense of the soup
KELL, D. (2004) · Current Opinion in Microbiology · doi:10.1016/j.mib.2004.04.012 · Cited by 529 · see citing works
Dying cells actively regulate adaptive immune responses
Yatim, N., Cullen, S., & Albert, M. L. (2017) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri.2017.9 · Cited by 442 · see citing works
Activation of the IL-1β-Processing Inflammasome Is Involved in Contact Hypersensitivity
Watanabe, H., Gaide, O., Pétrilli, V., Martinon, F., Contassot, E., Roques, S., Kummer, J. A., Tschopp, J., & French, L. E. (2007) · Journal of Investigative Dermatology · doi:10.1038/sj.jid.5700819 · Cited by 416 · see citing works
Uric Acid Is a Danger Signal Activating NALP3 Inflammasome in Lung Injury Inflammation and Fibrosis
Gasse, P., Riteau, N., Charron, S., Girre, S., Fick, L., Pétrilli, V., Tschopp, J., Lagente, V., Quesniaux, V. F. J., Ryffel, B., et al. (2009) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.200808-1274oc · Cited by 410 · see citing works
Hollman, P. C. H., Cassidy, A., Comte, B., Heinonen, M., Richelle, M., Richling, E., Serafini, M., Scalbert, A., Sies, H., & Vidry, S. (2011) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.110.131490 · Cited by 406 · see citing works
Alum interaction with dendritic cell membrane lipids is essential for its adjuvanticity
Flach, T. L., Ng, G., Hari, A., Desrosiers, M. D., Zhang, P., Ward, S. M., Seamone, M. E., Vilaysane, A., Mucsi, A. D., Fong, Y., et al. (2011) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm.2306 · Cited by 405 · see citing works
Self-citationNLRs at the intersection of cell death and immunity
Ting, J. P.-Y., Willingham, S. B., & Bergstralh, D. T. (2008) · Nature Reviews Immunology · doi:10.1038/nri2296 · Cited by 371 · see citing works
Ganson, N. J., Kelly, S. J., Scarlett, E., Sundy, J. S., & Hershfield, M. S. (2005) · Arthritis Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/ar1861 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Uric acid promotes an acute inflammatory response to sterile cell death in mice
Kono, H., Chen, C.-J., Ontiveros, F., & Rock, K. L. (2010) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci40124 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Self-citationNg, G., Sharma, K., Ward, S. M., Desrosiers, M. D., Stephens, L. A., Schoel, W. M., Li, T., Lowell, C. A., Ling, C.-C., Amrein, M. W., et al. (2008) · Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.immuni.2008.09.013 · Cited by 276 · see citing works
Self-citationXanthine oxidoreductase regulates macrophage IL1β secretion upon NLRP3 inflammasome activation
Ives, A., Nomura, J., Martinon, F., Roger, T., LeRoy, D., Miner, J. N., Simon, G., Busso, N., & So, A. (2015) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms7555 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Inflammasome-mediated regulation of hepatic stellate cells
Watanabe, A., Sohail, M. A., Gomes, D. A., Hashmi, A., Nagata, J., Sutterwala, F. S., Mahmood, S., Jhandier, M. N., Shi, Y., Flavell, R. A., et al. (2009) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.90223.2008 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
Self-citationNALP Inflammasomes: a central role in innate immunity
Martinon, F., Gaide, O., Pétrilli, V., Mayor, A., & Tschopp, J. (2007) · Seminars in Immunopathology · doi:10.1007/s00281-007-0079-y · Cited by 218 · see citing works
Maslanik, T., Mahaffey, L., Tannura, K., Beninson, L., Greenwood, B. N., & Fleshner, M. (2013) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.014 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
CD24-Siglec G/10 discriminates danger- from pathogen-associated molecular patterns
Liu, Y., Chen, G.-Y., & Zheng, P. (2009) · Trends in Immunology · doi:10.1016/j.it.2009.09.006 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Oxidized Hemoglobin Is an Endogenous Proinflammatory Agonist That Targets Vascular Endothelial Cells
Silva, G., Jeney, V., Chora, Â., Larsen, R., Balla, J., & Soares, M. P. (2009) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m109.045344 · Cited by 137 · see citing works
Malik, A. F., Hoque, R., Ouyang, X., Ghani, A., Hong, E., Khan, K., Moore, L. B., Ng, G., Munro, F., Flavell, R. A., et al. (2011) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1105152108 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Self-citationThorp, E., Subramanian, M., & Tabas, I. (2011) · European Journal of Immunology · doi:10.1002/eji.201141719 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Xanthine Oxidoreductase Is an Endogenous Regulator of Cyclooxygenase-2
Ohtsubo, T., Rovira, I. I., Starost, M. F., Liu, C., & Finkel, T. (2004) · Circulation Research · doi:10.1161/01.res.0000149571.96304.36 · Cited by 99 · see citing works
Immunoregulatory effects of HO-1: how does it work?
Soares, M. P., Marguti, I., Cunha, A., & Larsen, R. (2009) · Current Opinion in Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.coph.2009.05.008 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Cross-presentation of caspase-cleaved apoptotic self antigens in HIV infection
Rawson, P. M., Molette, C., Videtta, M., Altieri, L., Franceschini, D., Donato, T., Finocchi, L., Propato, A., Paroli, M., Meloni, F., et al. (2007) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/nm1679 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Powering the Immune System: Mitochondria in Immune Function and Deficiency
Walker, M. A., Volpi, S., Sims, K. B., Walter, J. E., & Traggiai, E. (2014) · Journal of Immunology Research · doi:10.1155/2014/164309 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Burm, S. M., Zuiderwijk-Sick, E. A., ‘t Jong, A. E. J., van der Putten, C., Veth, J., Kondova, I., & Bajramovic, J. J. (2015) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2510-14.2015 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Acute Brain Injury Triggers MyD88-Dependent, TLR2/4-Independent Inflammatory Responses
Koedel, U., Merbt, U. M., Schmidt, C., Angele, B., Popp, B., Wagner, H., Pfister, H.-W., & Kirschning, C. J. (2007) · The American Journal of Pathology · doi:10.2353/ajpath.2007.060821 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Evidence for a Functional Thymic Stromal Lymphopoietin Signaling Axis in Fibrotic Lung Disease
Datta, A., Alexander, R., Sulikowski, M. G., Nicholson, A. G., Maher, T. M., Scotton, C. J., & Chambers, R. C. (2013) · The Journal of Immunology · doi:10.4049/jimmunol.1300588 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Necrosis: C-Type Lectins Sense Cell Death
Cambi, A., & Figdor, C. (2009) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.03.032 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Biomaterials-Driven Sterile Inflammation
Chen, H., Agrawal, D. K., & Thankam, F. G. (2022) · Tissue Engineering Part B: Reviews · doi:10.1089/ten.teb.2020.0253 · Cited by 41 · see citing works
- Authors
- Shi, Y., Evans, J. E., & Rock, K. L.
- Affiliations
- University of Massachusetts Chan Medical School (US)
- Corresponding author
- Rock, Kenneth L.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2003-09-07
- Volume
- 425
- Issue
- 6957
- Pages
- 516-521
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2092157690
- Cited by
- 1,684
- References
- 28
- Citations by year
- 2026: 20 · 2025: 36 · 2024: 26 · 2023: 40 · 2022: 43 · 2021: 41 · 2020: 67 · 2019: 57 · 2018: 59 · 2017: 75 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 94 · 2013: 98 · 2012: 85
- FWCI
- 27.56
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune Response and Inflammation
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotherapy and Immune Responses
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immune responses and vaccinations
- Keywords
- uric acid, damage-associated molecular patterns, dying cells, dendritic cell maturation, CD8+ T cell responses, cell damage, innate immunity, autoimmunity, inflammation, vaccines
- MeSH terms
- Adjuvants, Immunologic, Animals, Biological Factors, Cell Differentiation, Cells, Cytosol, Dendritic Cells, Immune System, Molecular Weight, Uric Acid, 3T3 Cells, Cell Death, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes, Mice
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
