The nature of human altruism

“This makes the ultimatum game a widely used paradigm to study anthropological (e.g., evolution, Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; cultural variations, Henrich et al., 2001), sociological (e.g., gender differences, Solnick, 2001; social distance effects, Charness & Gneezy, 2008), and individual (e.g.,…”

“Experimental studies have consistently demonstrated that punishment (monetary and symbolic alike) promotes cooperation (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Fehr & Gächter, 2002; Masclet, Noussair, Tucker, & Villeval, 2003).”

“Experiments have confirmed that players have a higher probability of receiving a reward in the second game if they have contributed more in the previous one (usually public goods) game (Barclay, 2004; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Milinski et al., 2002; Wedekind & Braithwaite, 2002).”

“The application is the emerging water quality conflict between upstream farmers and downstream water users in the Blue River/ Tuttle Creek Lake watershed of Nebraska and Kansas.”

“…& Hawley, on press) Modern evolutionary theories include several mechanisms that separately or together can explain how proximally other-oriented behavior could be ultimately beneficial for the individual’s evolutionary fitness (see e.g. Fehr & Fischbacher 2003; West, El Mouden & Gardner 2011).”

“…considered the role that costly signaling may play in explaining cooperative behavior (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003; Gurven, 2004; Henrich et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2003) and one of these concluded that there was no experimental evidence for altruistic costly signaling (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003).”

“…is commonly made that group selection is distinct from kin selection (e.g. Wilson, 1975; Colwell, 1981; Sober & Wilson, 1998; Gintis, 2000; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Gintis et al., 2003; Peck, 2006; Kreft, 2005; Wilson & Hölldobler, 2005; Nowak, 2006; Traulsen & Nowak, 2006; Taylor &…”

“In fact, the mere presence of another individual, including nonrelatives and strangers, affects economic decision making (Bolton & Ockenfels, 2000; Fehr & Gachter, 2000; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Fehr & Schmidt, 1999; Sanfey et al., 2003; Van Lange, 1999).”

“However, researchers have recently suggested that reciprocity alone cannot sufficiently account for all altruistic behaviours among unrelated individuals (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Sober & Wilson, 1998; reviewed by Barclay & Van Vugt, 2015).”

“As shown by Axelrod and Dion (1988), Brandt et al. (2003), Doebeli and Hauert (2005), Fehr and Gachter (2002), Fehr and Fischbacher (2003) , Jaffe (2004), McElreath (2003), Milinski et al. (2002), reputation, punishment, shadow of future, altruism and other psychological and sociologic factors play roles in individual…”

“…are unlikely to meet again, impose costly punishment on wrongdoers, and adhere to costly group-beneficial social norms (Fehr & Gachter, 2002; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Gintis, Bowles, Boyd, & Fehr, 2003; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2004; Henrich et al., 2005, 2006; Marlowe et al., 2008; Henrich et al.,…”

“These results are consistent with the view [ 30 ] that many participants begin the sequence of six games in a cooperative mood but continually lower their Box 2. The evolution of fairness preferences: a controversy”

“The rejection of unfair offers in the ultimatum game can be seen as a form of altruistic punishment designed to increase equity by punishing the behavior of the unfair proposer (Fehr & Fishbacher, 2003).”

“…to our social environment, it is reasonable to expect that they are also guided by other-regarding preferences, making us generous and caring in some situations or spiteful and envious in others (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Fehr & Schmidt, 1999; Marlowe et al., 2011; Wobker & Kenning, 2013).”

“We also take comfort in using trust from studies that find a close correlation between generalized trust as measured in attitudinal (and hence hypothetical) surveys and actual behavior as observed in experiments (e.g., Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003; Glaeser et al, 2000).”

“While a number of studies indicate that a significant fraction of individuals tend to start out cooperatively, the negative feedback resulting from defecting individuals typically causes a cooperation break down [11,12].”

“…focus of study across the natural and social sciences (Hardin, 1968; Ostrom, 1990; Batson and Moran, 1999; Milinski et al., 2002; Boyd et al., 2003; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003; Bartlett and Desteno, 2006; Levin, 2006; Herrmann et al., 2008; Crockett, 2009; Cushman and Macindoe, 2009; Goetz et al.,…”

“Examples include altruistic offers in dictator games, reciprocity in trust games, and cooperation in one-shot public goods dilemmas (see also Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003) and several models have been constructed for explaining these behaviors in terms of social preference for inequity aversion (Bolton…”

“The Role of Egalitarian Motives in Altruistic Punishment”

“Acceptance of UG offers can be viewed as an example of such affiliative tendencies at the individual levels (although see accounts arguing that rejection is a prosocial behavior at the societal level, since it punishes behavior that violates group norms; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).”

“Trusting is always risky given the unpredictability of the intentions of the partner in a social exchange (Fehr & Fischbacher 2003).”

“Alike, when trustees do not feel compelled to enforce a reciprocity norm (for instance, when trustors threat to sanction defection), reciprocity rate drops notably, suggesting a cognitive shift from norm-sensitive to utility-based behavior (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003; Johnson and Mislin, 2011; Li et al., 2009).”

“First, group selection theorists have proposed the existence of second-order punishment—that is, punishment of those who do not punish (those who free ride on punishment) (Boyd and Richerson 2002; Fehr and Fischbacher 2003; Henrich and Boyd 2001; Sober and Wilson 1998).”

“onary PD game with synchronized stochastic imitation. On the other hand, the experimental investigations of the human and animal behavior (Flood, 1958; Milinski et al., 1997; Fehr and Ga¨chter, 2002; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003) have also indicatedthe presence of different types of mutual helps (Mitteldorf and Wilson, 2…”

“One possible explanation for the asymmetry between the contagion of cooperation and defection comes from the finding that humans have a strong taste for negative reciprocity [6,8,50– 52].”

“Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEVC.2017.2769081 systems [2]–[5], including ethical considerations [6], cross-cultural dimensions in an organizational context [7], and shaping human relationships [8].”

“Empathy and morality are fundamental human traits (Alexander 1987; de Waal 2009; Fehr and Fischbacher 2003).”

“This human behavior can be analyzed in the light of the social forces mentioned in [15] and [42] and the spontaneous reciprocal altruism [43] (also referred to as mutual utility maximization in [16]).”

“Recent economic research supports this argument in that it shows that individuals alternate between cooperative and competitive behavior, depending on situational cues (see e.g., Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Kahneman, 2011; Liberman, Samuels, & Ross, 2004).”

“This results in the inference that the costly decisions that players make knowingly inflict a personal cost in order to benefit others [3].”

“The GSS measure is more directly a measure of happiness rather than life satisfaction and the framing of the question (“these days”) emphasizes current feelings rather than the long-term framing of the WLS (“when you look back at the story of your life”).”

“Human altruism has been intensively studied [9] [10] [18].”

“Humans are considered highly cooperative [Fehr & Fishbacher, 2003] and they prefer an equal pay-off of effort and reward in a cooperative act, and react aversive to unequal pay-offs, a preference known as inequity aversion (IA) [Adams, 1963].”

“ince costly punishment has been argued to measure social norm nforcement (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003) rather than the desire o inflict harm, we added a game known as the money burnng game.”

“These studies reveal a causal relationship in which the social reward was experienced as a result of being liked or simply of producing a helping behavior, and this mechanistic understanding of the role of reward in prosocial behaviors is widely held (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003).”

“…of cooperative relationships observed among non-kin in humans—and non-humans as well—has been reciprocal altruism, also known simply as reciprocity (Boyd & Richerson, 1992; Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003; Gintis, Bowles, Boyd, & Fehr, 2003; Nowak & Sigmund, 2005; Tooby & Cosmides, 1996; Trivers, 1971).”

“…costs to improve the well-being of others, or in a counter-utilitaristic way, e.g., in parochial situations where the well-being of others is reduced at a cost and without direct benefit to the actor (Fehr and Schmidt, 1999; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2002, 2003; Camerer, 2003; Baron, in press).”

“Furthermore, many experimental reports described that humans actually behave as conditional cooperators in broadly various situations (Wedekind and Milinski, 2000; Fischbacher et al., 2001; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003).”

“Recent studies suggest that cooperative decision-making in one-shot interactions is a history-dependent dynamic process: promoting intuition versus deliberation has typically a positive effect on cooperation (dynamism) among people living in a cooperative setting and with no previous experience in…”

“Linear regression predicting “cooperation” as a function of a dummy variable, named “depletion”, which takes value 1 if a subject participated in the depletion condition, and 0 if the subject participated in the no-depletion condition, confirms that there is a significant and negative effect of “depletion” on “coopera…”

“Support provided in voluntary, informal relationships can also be reciprocated later (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1991) and in different ways (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).”

“cept of trait-like differences in negative affect (Fehr and Fischbacher 2003; Kirk et al. 2011).”

“The areas shadowed in blue, green and red denote the game interaction groups with agent 2, 5 and 8 as the focal agent.”

“Strong reciprocity—the combination of altruistic punishment and altruistic reward—has been crucial in the evolution of human cooperation (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).”

“Recent studies uncover different forms of human altruism (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003) such as direct and indirect reciprocal altruism (Boyd et al.”

“Nonetheless, it has been repeatedly observed that humans display a tendency toward cooperation (Camerer, 2003; Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003).”

“Yet, human societies are remarkably successful in maintaining cooperative norms even in groups of considerable size (Fehr and Fischbacher, 2003), suggesting that large-scale cooperation is based on additional mechanisms.”

“This early-emerging prosocial preference may be a derived motivation that accounts for many human forms of cooperation that occur beyond dyadic interactions and are not exhibited by other animals [9, 10].”

“5There is also the ”service and welfare support” to the need of the population, - which is not really mass media propaganda nor conversation, but rather an opinion ”formation” due to some ”theoretically gratuitous altruism” [40, 41, 42, 43, 44] by ”charitable organisations” following resources transfer, with political…”

“…when both partners increase their immediate benefits; altruism, when the recipient obtains a benefit at a cost to the actor; and altruistic punishment, when the actor's behaviour is detrimental to both the actor and the recipient, but increases third-parties' payoffs (Fehr and Fischbacher 2003).”

“due to widespread exhibitions of other-oriented behaviors directed toward genetically-unrelated individuals [2].”

“Social scientists and evolutionary biologists have long studied the question of why humans cooperate with genetically unrelated individuals, which seems to be a distinguishing feature of our species (Fehr & Fischbacher, 2003).”