In vivo interrogation of gene function in the mammalian brain using CRISPR-Cas9
Open accessAbstract
Probing gene function in the mammalian brain can be greatly assisted with methods to manipulate the genome of neurons in vivo. The clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated endonuclease (Cas)9 from Streptococcus pyogenes (SpCas9) can be used to edit single or multiple genes in replicating eukaryotic cells, resulting in frame-shifting insertion/deletion (indel) mutations and subsequent protein depletion. Here, we delivered SpCas9 and guide RNAs using adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors to target single (Mecp2) as well as multiple genes (Dnmt1, Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b) in the adult mouse brain in vivo. We characterized the effects of genome modifications in postmitotic neurons using biochemical, genetic, electrophysiological and behavioral readouts. Our results demonstrate that AAV-mediated SpCas9 genome editing can enable reverse genetic studies of gene function in the brain.
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Adenovirus or AAV-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery has been successfully applied to knockout genes in the mouse brain and liver.
“Adenovirus or adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated CRISPR-Cas9 delivery has been successfully applied to knockout genes in the mouse brain and liver12,13.”
From Therapeutic genome editing by combined viral and non-viral delivery of CRISPR system components in vivo (2016) · cites this paper as [13]
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Yang, S., Chang, R., Yang, H., Zhao, T., Hong, Y., Kong, H. E., Sun, X., Qin, Z. S., Jin, P., Li, S., et al. (2017) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci92087 · Cited by 400 · see citing works
“Two gRNAs (T1 and T3) are expressed under the U6 promoter in an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector that also expresses red fluorescent protein (RFP) (AAV-HTT-gRNA), and Cas9 is expressed in another AAV vector under the CMV promoter (AAV-CMV-Cas9) (13).”
BackgroundLee, B., Lee, K., Panda, S., Gonzales-Rojas, R., Chong, A., Bugay, V., Park, H. M., Brenner, R., Murthy, N., & Lee, H. Y. (2018) · Nature Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1038/s41551-018-0252-8 · Cited by 361 · see citing works
“Currently, gene editing in the adult brain is mainly accomplished through the viral delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 6 .”
BackgroundInfluentialIn vivo CRISPR editing with no detectable genome-wide off-target mutations
Akçakaya, P., Bobbin, M. L., Guo, J. A., Malagon-Lopez, J., Clement, K., Garcia, S. P., Fellows, M. D., Porritt, M. J., Firth, M. A., Carreras, A., et al. (2018) · Nature · doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0500-9 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Gene therapy for neurological disorders: progress and prospects
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CRISPR/Cas9-based engineering of the epigenome
Pulecio, J., Verma, N., Mejía-Ramírez, E., Huangfu, D., & Raya, A. (2017) · Cell Stem Cell · doi:10.1016/j.stem.2017.09.006 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
“Cas9 packaged into adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) has previously been used for in vivo genome editing of muscle, liver, and brain tissues to either produce desired mutations or to correct disease causing mutations (Swiech et al., 2015; Long et al., 2016; Nelson et al., 2016; Tabebordbar et al., 2016; Yang et al., 201…”
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In Vivo Excision of HIV-1 Provirus by saCas9 and Multiplex Single-Guide RNAs in Animal Models
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Combinatorial design of nanoparticles for pulmonary mRNA delivery and genome editing
Li, B., Manan, R. S., Liang, S., Gordon, A. G. R., Jiang, A. Y., Varley, A., Gao, G., Langer, R., Xue, W., & Anderson, D. G. (2023) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-023-01679-x · Cited by 291 · see citing works
DNA Breaks and End Resection Measured Genome-wide by End Sequencing
Canela, A., Sridharan, S., Sciascia, N., Tubbs, A., Meltzer, P., Sleckman, B. P., & Nussenzweig, A. (2016) · Molecular Cell · doi:10.1016/j.molcel.2016.06.034 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
“Applications Recently, CRISPR-associated Cas9 nuclease has been used to edit disease genes in adult mice (Swiech et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2014), and ZFNs have been utilized for gene therapy in HIV infection in humans (Tebas et al.”
Applications of CRISPR–Cas systems in neuroscience
Heidenreich, M., & Zhang, F. (2015) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.2 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Self-citationCRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Genome Editing as a Therapeutic Approach for Leber Congenital Amaurosis 10
Ruan, G.-X., Barry, E., Yu, D., Lukason, M., Cheng, S. H., & Scaria, A. (2017) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.ymthe.2016.12.006 · Cited by 270 · see citing works
Machine Learning in Genomic Medicine: A Review of Computational Problems and Data Sets
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“The system has been used to control gene expression by deactivating the endonuclease domain [201], study gene functions in neural cells [202], develop synthetic biology applications [203], fix pathogenic mutations causing -thalassemia [204], and to repair cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductor receptor mutations [205…”
MethodPark, H., Oh, J., Shim, G., Cho, B., Chang, Y., Kim, S., Baek, S., Kim, H., Shin, J., Choi, H. G., et al. (2019) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-019-0352-0 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
Viral Delivery Systems for CRISPR
Xu, C. L., Ruan, M. Z. C., Mahajan, V. B., & Tsang, S. H. (2019) · Viruses · doi:10.3390/v11010028 · Cited by 277 · see citing works
“used a dual-vector system to target Mecp2 in vivo in the adult mouse brain [26].”
MethodAstrocytes Regulate Daily Rhythms in the Suprachiasmatic Nucleus and Behavior
Tso, C. F., Simon, T., Greenlaw, A. C., Puri, T. A., Mieda, M., & Herzog, E. D. (2017) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2017.02.037 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
“Loss of Daily Rhythms in SCN Astrocytes Lengthens Circadian Period in the SCN and in Behavior Using a recently developed gene editing technique [13, 14], we ablated the Bmal1 gene from targeted cells.”
Detecting and Avoiding Problems When Using the Cre/lox System
Song, A. J., & Palmiter, R. (2018) · Trends in Genetics · doi:10.1016/j.tig.2017.12.008 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence for precision medicine in neurodevelopmental disorders
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Rett syndrome: insights into genetic, molecular and circuit mechanisms
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Self-citationErratum: Gene therapy for neurological disorders: progress and prospects
Deverman, B. E., Ravina, B. M., Bankiewicz, K. S., Paul, S. M., & Sah, D. W. Y. (2018) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/nrd.2018.158 · Cited by 248 · see citing works
Potential pitfalls of CRISPR /Cas9‐mediated genome editing
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Clinical development of gene therapy: results and lessons from recent successes
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Efficient prime editing in mouse brain, liver and heart with dual AAVs
Davis, J. R., Banskota, S., Levy, J. M., Newby, G. A., Wang, X., Anzalone, A. V., Nelson, A. T., Chen, P. J., Hennes, A. D., An, M., et al. (2023) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-023-01758-z · Cited by 237 · see citing works
“To enable the analysis of transduced cells, in addition to bulk tissue, we co-injected a 1 × 10 10 vg AAV9 expressing EGFP fused to a nuclear membrane-localized Klarsicht/ANC-1/Syne-1 homology (KASH) domain 32,42 (Fig.”
Zou, Y., Sun, X., Yang, Q., Zheng, M., Shimoni, O., Ruan, W., Wang, Y., Zhang, D., Yin, J., Huang, X., et al. (2022) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.abm8011 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
“Although the technology has already been used for brain diseases via intrabrain injections (3, 46), further clinical applications of gene therapy in brain diseases has been hampered by the lack of noninvasive, effective, and safe brain delivery systems for transporting CRISPR-Cas9 across the BBB to target diseased cel…”
MethodNishiyama, J., Mikuni, T., & Yasuda, R. (2017) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2017.10.004 · Cited by 215 · see citing works
Macrophage-Specific in Vivo Gene Editing Using Cationic Lipid-Assisted Polymeric Nanoparticles
Luo, Y., Xu, C., Li, H., Cao, Z., Liu, J., Wang, J., Du, X., Yang, X., Gu, Z., & Wang, J. (2018) · ACS Nano · doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b07874 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Mikuni, T., Nishiyama, J., Sun, Y., Kamasawa, N., & Yasuda, R. (2016) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.044 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Bioethical issues in genome editing by CRISPR-Cas9 technology
Ayanoğlu, F. B., ELÇİN, A. E., & Elçin, Y. M. (2020) · TURKISH JOURNAL OF BIOLOGY · doi:10.3906/biy-1912-52 · Cited by 233 · see citing works
“A mixture of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-labeled AAV-spCas9 and AAV-spGuide plasmids was transferred in vivo to the hippocampal toothed brain folds of adult male mice (Swiech et al., 2015).”
BackgroundCRISPR-Cas: New Tools for Genetic Manipulations from Bacterial Immunity Systems
Jiang, W., & Marraffini, L. A. (2015) · Annual Review of Microbiology · doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-091014-104441 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Epigenome Editing: State of the Art, Concepts, and Perspectives
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“While our current mechanistic understanding is still very limited, in the future epigenome diting may become a therapeutic option in cases of psychiatric disease, disturbed behavior, and addiction [39,91,92].”
BackgroundEngineered materials for in vivo delivery of genome-editing machinery
Tong, S., Moyo, B., Lee, C. M., Leong, K. W., & Bao, G. (2019) · Nature Reviews Materials · doi:10.1038/s41578-019-0145-9 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
CRISPR Cpf1 proteins: structure, function and implications for genome editing
Safari, F., Zare, K., Negahdaripour, M., Barekati‐Mowahed, M., & Ghasemi, Y. (2019) · Cell & Bioscience · doi:10.1186/s13578-019-0298-7 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
“The first efforts in the Cas9-based multiplexing were performed in bacteria [65] and mammalian cells [66] by the simultaneous assembly of Cas9 complexes with different sgRNAs (crRNA fused to tracrRNA).”
BackgroundGyörgy, B., Lööv, C., Zaborowski, M. P., Takeda, S., Kleinstiver, B. P., Commins, C., Kastanenka, K. V., Mu, D., Volak, A., Giedraitis, V., et al. (2018) · Molecular Therapy — Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2018.03.007 · Cited by 200 · see citing works
“60597 and 60958, respectively).(30) gRNA coding sequences were cloned into pX552 using SapI (Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA).”
MethodViral vectors for therapy of neurologic diseases
Choudhury, S. R., Hudry, E., Maguire, C. A., Sena-Esteves, M., Breakefield, X. O., & Grandi, P. (2017) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2016.02.013 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
“AAVmediated genome editing using CRISPR-Cas9 has been shown to be effective in liver (Ran et al., 2015; Yang et al., 2016), dystrophic muscle (Tabebordbar et al., 2016; Nelson et al., 2016), and more crucially in the context of this review, in brain (Swiech et al., 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialDelivery and Specificity of CRISPR/Cas9 Genome Editing Technologies for Human Gene Therapy
Gori, J. L., Hsu, P. D., Maeder, M. L., Shen, S., Welstead, G. G., & Bumcrot, D. A. (2015) · Human Gene Therapy · doi:10.1089/hum.2015.074 · Cited by 192 · see citing works
“achieved robust multiplex gene modification at three genomic loci following administration into the mouse brain with this approach.(58) A novel approach to fit S.”
Viral Strategies for Targeting the Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems
Bedbrook, C. N., Deverman, B. E., & Gradinaru, V. (2018) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-080317-062048 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
In vivo genome editing improves motor function and extends survival in a mouse model of ALS
Gaj, T., Ojala, D. S., Ekman, F. K., Byrne, L. C., Limsirichai, P., & Schaffer, D. V. (2017) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aar3952 · Cited by 185 · see citing works
“These results build on basic research studies by our laboratory (52) and others (53, 54) showing that CRISPR systems can induce gene editing in the mammalian brain and demonstrates that therapeutic genome editing can be achieved in tissues beyond the liver (55–58) and muscle (59–62) in animal models of human disease.”
ResultNGS Technologies as a Turning Point in Rare Disease Research , Diagnosis and Treatment
Marmiesse, A. F., Gouveia, S., & Couce, M. L. (2017) · Current Medicinal Chemistry · doi:10.2174/0929867324666170718101946 · Cited by 180 · see citing works
“to correct a hereditary disease, tyrosinemia, in a mouse model [230, 231].”
BackgroundRNA-guided transcriptional silencing in vivo with S. aureus CRISPR-Cas9 repressors
Thakore, P. I., Kwon, J. B., Nelson, C. E., Rouse, D. C., Gemberling, M. P., Oliver, M. L., & Gersbach, C. A. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-018-04048-4 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Recent Progress in CRISPR/Cas9 Technology
Mei, Y., Wang, Y., Chen, H., Sun, Z. S., & Ju, X. (2016) · Journal of genetics and genomics/Journal of Genetics and Genomics · doi:10.1016/j.jgg.2016.01.001 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
“…Pten, p53 Cre-LoxP technology, hydrodynamic injection Xue et al., 2014 Brain Mecp2, Dnmt1, Dnmt3a, Dnmt3b AAV, hydrodynamic injection Swiech et al., 2015 In vitro Human hepatoma cell lines HBV cccDNA Transfection Dong et al., 2015 EPSC Tet1, Tet2, Tet3 Microinjection Wang et…”
MethodThe importance of DNA methylation of exons on alternative splicing
Shayevitch, R., Askayo, D., Keydar, I., & Ast, G. (2018) · RNA · doi:10.1261/rna.064865.117 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
Non-muscle myosin II in disease: mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities
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“Furthermore, in genetically complex disorders, such as autism and schizophrenia, studies are needed to elucidate the contribution of specificCNV-associated genes,which is now possible through the use of gene editing technologies inmodel organisms (Swiech et al., 2014).”
BackgroundRewiring Neuronal Glycerolipid Metabolism Determines the Extent of Axon Regeneration
Yang, C., Wang, X., Wang, J., Wang, X., Chen, W., Lu, N., Siniossoglou, S., Yao, Z., & Liu, K. (2019) · Neuron · doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.10.009 · Cited by 170 · see citing works
“SV40 Penn Vector Cat#P1867 pAAV-U6. sgRNA(SapI)_hSyn-GFP-KASH-bGH Swiech et al., 2015 Cat#60958; RRID:Addgene_60958 Chemicals, Peptides, and Recombinant Proteins Cholera Toxin B Subunit, FITC Conjugate Sigma-Aldrich Cat#C1655 Fluorogold Invitrogen Cat#H22845 Papain Sigma-Aldrich…”
Lafora disease — from pathogenesis to treatment strategies
Nitschké, F., Ahonen, S., Nitschke, S., Mitra, S., & Minassian, B. A. (2018) · Nature Reviews Neurology · doi:10.1038/s41582-018-0057-0 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
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Simultaneous repression of multiple bacterial genes using nonrepetitive extra-long sgRNA arrays
Reis, A. C., Halper, S. M., Vezeau, G. E., Cetnar, D. P., Hossain, A., Clauer, P. R., & Salis, H. M. (2019) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-019-0286-9 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Patterns of CRISPR/Cas9 activity in plants, animals and microbes
Bortesi, L., Zhu, C., Zischewski, J., Pérez, L., Bassié, L., Nadi, R., Forni, G., Lade, S. B., Soto, E., Jin, X., et al. (2016) · Plant Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1111/pbi.12634 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
“Unlike plants, the CRISPR/Cas9 system can be used for genome editing in particular tissues by hydrodynamic injection or by introducing the components using Adeno-associated virus (AAV) or Adenovirus vectors (Rodriguez et al., 2014; Senis et al., 2014; Swiech et al., 2015; Xue et al., 2014).”
MethodEkman, F. K., Ojala, D. S., Adil, M. M., Zapana, P. A. L., Schaffer, D. V., & Gaj, T. (2019) · Molecular Therapy — Nucleic Acids · doi:10.1016/j.omtn.2019.07.009 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
CRISPR interference-based specific and efficient gene inactivation in the brain
Zheng, Y., Shen, W., Zhang, J., Yang, B., Liu, Y., Qi, H., Yu, X., Lu, S., Chen, Y., Xu, Y., et al. (2018) · Nature Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41593-018-0077-5 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Self-citationSystematic analysis of CRISPR–Cas9 mismatch tolerance reveals low levels of off-target activity
Anderson, E. M., Haupt, A., Schiel, J. A., Chou, E. T., Machado, H. B., Strezoska, Ž., Lenger, S., McClelland, S., Birmingham, A., Vermeulen, A., et al. (2015) · Journal of Biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2015.06.427 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Delivery approaches for CRISPR/Cas9 therapeutics in vivo: advances and challenges
Luther, D. C., Lee, Y. W., Nagaraj, H., Scaletti, F., & Rotello, V. M. (2018) · Expert Opinion on Drug Delivery · doi:10.1080/17425247.2018.1517746 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Multiplex Conditional Mutagenesis Using Transgenic Expression of Cas9 and sgRNAs
Yin, L., Maddison, L. A., Li, M., Kara, N., LaFave, M. C., Varshney, G. K., Burgess, S. M., Patton, J. G., & Chen, W. (2015) · Genetics · doi:10.1534/genetics.115.176917 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“A Cas9 knock-in mouse line has been used to achieve tissue-specific mutagenesis (Platt et al. 2014; Swiech et al. 2015).”
MethodEngineered Viruses as Genome Editing Devices
Chen, X., & Gonçalves, M. A. F. V. (2015) · Molecular Therapy · doi:10.1038/mt.2015.164 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Spatial control of in vivo CRISPR–Cas9 genome editing via nanomagnets
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Nucleus of the Solitary Tract Serotonin 5-HT2C Receptors Modulate Food Intake
D'Agostino, G., Lyons, D., Cristiano, C., Lettieri, M., Olarte-Sanchez, C., Burke, L. K., Greenwald-Yarnell, M., Cansell, C., Doslikova, B., Georgescu, T., et al. (2018) · Cell Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.cmet.2018.07.017 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
“Two active sgRNAs were cloned into an AAV vector that also expressed eGFP to enable site-specific brain delivery (Swiech et al., 2015).”
MethodExosome-associated AAV vector as a robust and convenient neuroscience tool
Hudry, E., Martin, C., Gandhi, S., György, B., Scheffer, D. I., Mu, D., Merkel, S. F., Mingozzi, F., Fitzpatrick, Z., Dimant, H., et al. (2016) · Gene Therapy · doi:10.1038/gt.2016.11 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“…various neuronal sub-population in vivo (12, 14), address functional connectivity between neurons and astrocytes (11), determine gene function using CRISPR-Cas9 (9, 10), and mediate spatial and temporal control of transgene expression in transgenic mice using the Cre-loxP approach (16).”
Programmable base editing of mutated TERT promoter inhibits brain tumour growth
Li, X., Qian, X., Wang, B., Xia, Y., Zheng, Y., Du, L., Xu, D., Xing, D., DePinho, R. A., & Lu, Z. (2020) · Nature Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/s41556-020-0471-6 · Cited by 151 · see citing works
Rapid and efficient one-step generation of paired gRNA CRISPR-Cas9 libraries
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Immunity to CRISPR Cas9 and Cas12a therapeutics
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Opportunities and challenges in modeling human brain disorders in transgenic primates
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Self-citationDirected evolution improves the catalytic efficiency of TEV protease
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Genome Editing Abrogates Angiogenesis in Vivo
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Self-citationTransgenic mice for in vivo epigenome editing with CRISPR-based systems
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“28 This mouse line has been essential to numerous important breakthroughs including in vivo dissection of gene function 57 studies of gene regulatory networks, 58 and in vivo genetic screens.”
Base editing rescue of spinal muscular atrophy in cells and in mice
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“GFP-positive cells as previously described(74, 76).”
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Surface-Engineered Viral Vectors for Selective and Cell Type-Specific Gene Delivery
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“Packaging the required components into viral vectors, local gene knockouts can be achieved by in vivo gene delivery [45].”
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- Authors
- Swiech, L., Heidenreich, M., Banerjee, A., Habib, N., Li, Y., Trombetta, J., Sur, M., & Zhang, F.
- Affiliations
- Broad Institute (US)
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Zhang, Feng
- Venue
- Nature Biotechnology
- Published
- 2014-10-19
- Volume
- 33
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 102-106
- ISSN
- 0733-222X (ISSN-L)
- 1087-0156
- 1546-1696
- PMC
- PMC4492112
- OpenAlex
- W2056512830
- Cited by
- 772
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 17 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 47 · 2023: 56 · 2022: 47 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 76 · 2019: 85 · 2018: 102 · 2017: 90 · 2016: 87 · 2015: 65
- FWCI
- 33.10
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature Biotechnology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- DSpace@MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) (submittedVersion, cc-by-nc)
- PMC
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (DP1MH100706, R01MH085802)
- National Eye Institute (R01EY007023)
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (R01NS073124, 5R01-NS073124)
- National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (5DP1-MH100706)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › CRISPR and Genetic Engineering
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Virus-based gene therapy research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › RNA regulation and disease
- Keywords
- CRISPR/Cas9, adeno-associated virus vectors, in vivo gene editing, MeCP2, DNMT1, DNMT3A, DNMT3B, DNA methylation, postmitotic neurons, adult mouse brain, gene function, guide RNA, electrophysiology, behavior
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Streptococcus pyogenes, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats
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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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