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Cited by 946Poxvirus research and outbreaksVirology and Viral DiseasesViral Infections and Outbreaks Research

Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination

Hammarlund, Erika, Lewis, Matthew W, Hansen, Scott G, Strelow, Lisa I, Nelson, Jay A, Sexton, Gary J, Hanifin, Jon M, Slifka, Mark K·2003·Nature Medicine
DOI 10.1038/nm917
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Abstract

Although naturally occurring smallpox was eliminated through the efforts of the World Health Organization Global Eradication Program, it remains possible that smallpox could be intentionally released. Here we examine the magnitude and duration of antiviral immunity induced by one or more smallpox vaccinations. We found that more than 90% of volunteers vaccinated 25-75 years ago still maintain substantial humoral or cellular immunity (or both) against vaccinia, the virus used to vaccinate against smallpox. Antiviral antibody responses remained stable between 1-75 years after vaccination, whereas antiviral T-cell responses declined slowly, with a half-life of 8-15 years. If these levels of immunity are considered to be at least partially protective, then the morbidity and mortality associated with an intentional smallpox outbreak would be substantially reduced because of pre-existing immunity in a large number of previously vaccinated individuals.

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Crossref · 10.1038/nm917

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  • Strong T cell responses from mRNA vaccines may matter for long-term protection, since memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells can last exceptionally long after other vaccines.

    “the generation of robust T cell responses by mRNA vaccines may have implications for long-term protective immunity, as memory CD4+ and CD8+ T cells can be exceptionally durable in other vaccine settings (Akondy et al., 2017; Hammarlund et al., 2003).”

    From Rapid induction of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells is associated with coordinated humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 mRNA vaccination (2021) · cites this paper as Hammarlund et al., 2003

  • Smallpox- and yellow fever virus-specific CD8+ T cells persist for several decades after vaccination.

    “Small pox- and yellow fever virus-specific CD8+ T cells persist for several decades after vaccination”

    From Successful and Maladaptive T Cell Aging (2017) · cites this paper as Hammarlund et al., 2003

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Authors
Hammarlund, E., Lewis, M. W., Hansen, S. G., Strelow, L. I., Nelson, J. A., Sexton, G. J., Hanifin, J. M., & Slifka, M. K.
Affiliations
  • Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute (US)
  • Oregon Health & Science University (US)
Corresponding author
Slifka, Mark K
ORCID
Venue
Nature Medicine
Publisher
Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published
2003-08-17
Volume
9
Issue
9
Pages
1131-1137
ISSN
  • 1078-8956 (ISSN-L)
  • 1546-170X
DOI
10.1038/nm917
OpenAlex
W1977189837
Cited by
946
References
47
Citations by year
2026: 26 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 38 · 2023: 52 · 2022: 48 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 23 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 30 · 2016: 28 · 2015: 36 · 2014: 35 · 2013: 42 · 2012: 35
FWCI
16.31
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Licence
Locations
  • Nature Medicine (publishedVersion)
  • PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders
  • National Institutes of Health (5t32hl007781-20)
  • National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (T32-HL007781, T32 HL07781)
  • National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (AI 051346, AI21640, R01AI051346)
  • National Center for Research Resources (P51RR000163, RR-00163.)
Topics
  • Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Virology › Poxvirus research and outbreaks
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Virology and Viral Diseases
  • Health Sciences › Medicine › Infectious Diseases › Viral Infections and Outbreaks Research
Keywords
smallpox vaccination, vaccinia virus, antiviral immunity, long-term immunity, humoral immunity, T cell immunity, antibody persistence, cell-mediated immunity, smallpox eradication, bioterrorism preparedness, pre-existing immunity
MeSH terms
Adult, Aged, Antibody Formation, Cross-Sectional Studies, Female, Half-Life, Humans, Immunization, Secondary, Immunologic Memory, Male, Middle Aged, Smallpox Vaccine, T-Lymphocytes, Time Factors, Vaccinia virus, CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes, CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes

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