The Role of the Immune System in Autism Spectrum Disorder

In the paper

“Nearly 50 years ago, an association of autism with congenital rubella infection was noted”

In the paper

“It is known that autism is strongly influenced by the genome-in contrast to earlier speculation, ranges of heritability estimates generally center ~50 or 55%”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Badcock, 2011 source
• Not checked yetcites Colvert et al, 2015 source
• Not checked yetcites Hallmayer et al, 2011 source

In the paper

“the presence of maternally derived anti-brain autoantibodies found in ~20% of mothers whose children are at risk for developing autism has defined an additional subphenotype of ASD.”

In the paper

“an earlier investigation of Finnish children that showed an association between autism and elevated early gestational maternal C-reactive protein”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Brown et al, 2014 source

In the paper

“A subsequent study used samples taken from 11 mothers with autistic children to strengthen these results, finding serum reactivity in those mothers to prenatal, postnatal, and adult rat brain proteins while finding none in control mothers”

• Also stated in: § Transplacental Maternal Autoantibodies to the Fetal Brain · hedged

  “the children in this study ranged in age from 2 to 18 years old, indicating that the presence of autoantibodies in maternal serum is not a transient phenomenon and may persist for many years”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zimmerman et al, 2007 source

In the paper

“The authors identified two bands, at 37 and 73 kDa, that were significantly more common among mothers with autistic children, in particular children with regression rather than early onset.”

• Also stated in: § Transplacental Maternal Autoantibodies to the Fetal Brain · plain

  “the authors found that 12% of samples from mothers of children with ASD showed both 37 and 73 kDa bands, while none of the mothers of TD or DD children did”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braunschweig et al, 2008

In the paper

“A poly(I:C) MIA model by Meyer et al (2008) suggested that maternal IL-10 may be able to attenuate behavioral and pharmacological dysfunctions.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Meyer et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“More recent human studies found increased levels of IFN-γ, IL-4, and IL-5 in sera from mid-gestational mothers with a child that would later be diagnosed (Goines et al, 2011b) and elevated MCP-1 (Abdallah et al, 2012a), IL-4, TNF-α, and TNF-β levels in amniotic fluid (Abdallah et al, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Goines et al, 2011b
• Not checked yetcites Abdallah et al, 2012a
• Not checked yetcites Abdallah et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“The notion that maternal autoantibodies to elements in the fetal compartment could elicit changes in neurodevelopment began over 25 years ago”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Warren et al, 1990 source

In the paper

“A 2016 study found maternal blood C-reactive protein levels to be lower in weeks 15-19 of pregnancies of a child with ASD than the general population, and although the results appear not to be genetic”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zerbo et al, 2016 source

In the paper

“Smith et al (2007) showed in 2007 that a single injection of the pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-6 to pregnant mice at embryonic day 12.5 lead to offspring deficits in prepulse inhibition (PPI) and latent inhibition (LI), both autism-relevant behaviors; these results were not seen following injection of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1α, TNF-α, or IFN-γ.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith et al, 2007 source

In the paper

“A yet-larger 2015 study of over 24 000 Swedish ASD cases observed increased ASD rates among offspring of mothers hospitalized the year before pregnancy; risk for ASD increased under any inpatient diagnosis, including both viral and bacterial”

• Also stated in: § Congenital Infection · plain

  “The authors found no connection with the gestational timing of infection, however”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lee et al, 2015 source

In the paper

“the authors observed similar aberrant phenotypes in the same mice when using only poly(I:C) treatment rather than infection, suggesting that it was the maternal immune response rather than the infection itself that was responsible”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shi et al, 2003 source

In the paper

“other neurodevelopmental disorders, such as schizophrenia, also present alongside a spectrum of changes in immune function”

In the paper

“A 2015 epigenetic study also using a single poly (I:C) injection found significantly increased rates of 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine on the glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD1) promoter”

• Also stated in: § Maternal Immune Activation · plain

  “These changes correlated with social interaction and working memory impairments”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Labouesse et al, 2015 source

In the paper

“The authors looked at ultrasonic vocalization (USV) responses among male offspring and found lower rates and total length of vocalizations.”

• Also stated in: § Maternal Immune Activation · plain

  “The male MIA offspring also showed several autismrelevant changes, such as reduced sociability in the threechamber apparatus, spending more time in the nonsocial chamber and less time with the social object, as well as significantly higher rates of repetitive behaviors such as selfgrooming and marble burying.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Malkova et al, 2012 source

In the paper

“Another team also used a poly(I:C) MIA model to show increased IL-6 levels, and found that treatment with Bacteroides fragilis, which can repair tight junction integrity in the gut, corrected and restored IL-6 levels, aberrant behavior, stereotypies, and anxiety-like symptoms”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Hsiao et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“both groups had offspring with altered cerebellar development, akin to that seen in autism”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shi et al, 2009 source

In the paper

“When the authors coadministered a neutralizing anti-IL-6 antibody to pregnant dams, they observed an apparent rescue of the aberrant behaviors and reversal of transcriptional changes; these rescue effects were not seen in the context of co-administered anti-IFN-γ or anti-IL-1β antibody, suggesting a specific role for IL-6 in the etiology of ASD.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Smith et al, 2007 source

In the paper

“Some of the strongest support for maternal infection as a contributor to autism has come from the maternal immune activation (MIA) model, which has repeatedly shown consistent results, helping to establish a subset of autism that is supported by observations of autism-relevant atypical behaviors.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gilmore et al, 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Meyer et al, 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Urakubo et al, 2001 source

In the paper

“treatment of the anti-IL-17 antibody 2 days after MIA induction saw rescue of some phenotypes, such as USV calls and marble burying, but not others, including interaction deficits”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Choi et al, 2016 source

In the paper

“Put together, this suggests that the Th17 cell/IL-17 pathway may be critical in MIA-induced autism, caused by upregulated IL-17 acting downstream of increased IL-6 levels.”

In the paper

“Shi et al (2003) infected two strains of pregnant mice with human influenza virus and observed abnormal behavior, exploration, and social interaction in their offspring.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Shi et al, 2003 source

In the paper

“Another study published that year looked at serum from 100 mothers of children with autism, again finding higher rates of anti-fetal brain antibodies as compared with 100 control mothers”

• Also stated in: § Transplacental Maternal Autoantibodies to the Fetal Brain · plain

  “These antibodies were positive to adult and fetal human and rat brain proteins, including targets at 73 kDa and 36 kDa”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Singer et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“A 2014 study by Bauman et al (2014), broadened the poly (I:C) maternal activation model to rhesus macaques, showing many abnormal behaviors, including in vocal communication and social interaction, as well as repetitive behaviors in the offspring of treated females.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bauman et al, 2014 source

In the paper

“Some studies suggest fever as a correlate (Atladottir et al, 2012), with this risk potentially tempered by anti-fever medications, such as Advil, Tylenol, or Nyquil”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Atladottir et al, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Zerbo et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“finding that offspring of pregnant mice given a single poly (I:C) injection at day E9 showed reduced interaction (via the three-chamber apparatus) and increased fear expression in a cued Pavlovian conditioning test”

• Also stated in: § Maternal Immune Activation · plain

  “they showed that several autism-relevant traits only persisted through the paternal line, without any further intervention, through the F2 and even the F3 generations, resulting in significant differences in gene expression”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Weber-Stadlbauer et al, 2016

In the paper

“Other positively associated alleles are the class I A*01, A*02, and B*07, while DRB1*03 and some DQB1 alleles have been negatively associated with rates of autism (Al-Hakbany et al, 2014;Mostafa et al, 2013;Torres et al, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Al-Hakbany et al, 2014
• Not checked yetcites Mostafa et al, 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Torres et al, 2006 source

In the paper

“Singer et al (2009) exposed pregnant mice to IgG from mothers of children with autism daily between E13 and E18, observing alterations in sociability and anxiety.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Singer et al, 2009 source

In the paper

“The authors also found strong correlations between the presence of those antibodies and aberrant behaviors, as well as decreased cognitive and adaptive functioning.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Goines et al, 2011a

In the paper

“The DRB1*11 (Mostafa et al, 2013) and DRB1*1104 (Al-Hakbany et al, 2014) alleles have specifically been noted to occur at a higher rate in individuals with ASD.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Mostafa et al, 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Al-Hakbany et al, 2014

In the paper

“investigators injected maternal serum containing anti-brain antibodies into pregnant mice daily between E10 and E17, and observed reduced exploration and motor control in their offspring as compared with the offspring of untreated dams”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Dalton et al, 2003 source

In the paper

“Multiple studies have suggested HLA-DR4 as another risk factor, appearing at increased rates in children with autism as well as their mothers (Johnson et al, 2009;Lee et al, 2006).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Johnson et al, 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Lee et al, 2006 source

In the paper

“A follow on study using the same technique showed structural changes in the offspring of pregnant mice injected with autoreactive IgG, including higher proliferation of radial glial cells and increased brain and neuron size”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Martinez-Cerdeno et al, 2016 source

In the paper

“Confirmatory analysis of the identified targets confirmed that 23% of mothers whose children had ASD had reactivity to the highly specific antigen patterns compared with 1% of TD mothers.This preliminary analysis suggests a specificity of 98% with a sensitivity of 23%.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braunschweig et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“The authors then treated eight pregnant macaques with that IgG six times over the course of the second and third trimesters, and assessed macaque offspring for 2 years using a battery of developmental and social tests.They observed a number of deviations from typical behavior as compared with animals treated with IgG from mothers of TD children as well as untreated controls, including rebuffed and”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bauman et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“There also exists a broad picture of ASD-related immune dysregulation, including an increased inflammatory cytokine milieu (eg, IL-6, IL-8, and MCP-1), thus leading to an increased, pro-inflammatory Th1/Th2 ratio.”

In the paper

“A 2014 study injected pregnant mice only once, intraventricularly, on E14, with IgG from either mothers with the 37 and 73 kDa autoantibodies or control mothers; the authors observed atypical behaviors in the murine offspring, including stereotypical self-grooming and increased marble burying”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Camacho et al, 2014 source

In the paper

“A related study collected sera from both mothers of autistic and TD children, and exposed pregnant macaques to IgG either reactive or nonreactive to monkey brain protein, verified via western blot.The authors found higher levels of motor activity and stereotypies among patient-treated macaque offspring”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Martin et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“Given the existence of autoantibodies associated with other neurological disorders such as schizophrenia (Henneberg et al, 1994) and multiple sclerosis (Ryberg, 1982)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Henneberg et al, 1994 source
• Not checked yetcites Ryberg, 1982 source

In the paper

“In specific combinations, autoantibodies to these proteins were predictive for autism risk, which, although still at the level of laboratory research, suggests the presence of a distinct, maternal autoantibodydriven subset of ASD.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braunschweig et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“finding that paired brain reactivity (ie, to the 37 and 73 kDa bands) correlated with lower expressive language”

• Also stated in: § Transplacental Maternal Autoantibodies to the Fetal Brain · plain

  “reactivity to a protein band near 39 kDa was discovered, and paired reactivity to proteins at 39 and 73 kDa correlated with broader diagnosis of ASD as well as increased irritability on the Aberrant Behavior Checklist (ABC) scale”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braunschweig et al, 2012a
• Not checked yetcites Piras et al, 2014 source

In the paper

“The western blot and IHC results were strongly correlative, reinforcing the findings of an ASD subset with persistent circulating anti-brain antibodies.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Wills et al, 2009 source

In the paper

“Autistic patients showed no decrease in overall NK count, a similar result to schizophrenia (DeLisi et al, 1983), suggesting that it is the cells themselves that are dysfunctional.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites DeLisi et al, 1983 source

In the paper

“In essence, NK cells from individuals with ASD show higher resting but reduced stimulated cytolytic activity as compared with TD controls.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Enstrom et al, 2009b

In the paper

“the authors suggest that these differences are unlikely to be directly pathological in their own right; rather, the evidence suggests broad immunomodulation as symptomatic of a larger cellular dysregulation”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Voineagu et al, 2011 source

In the paper

“In the control brains, dozens of genes exhibited different expression levels between the temporal and frontal lobes of the brain; these differences were not mirrored in the ASD samples.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Voineagu et al, 2011 source

In the paper

“an altered efficacy and faulty tolerance toward the fetus by maternal NK cells during pregnancy, thus compromising the privileged status of the fetus, could provide a mechanism for atypical development.”

In the paper

“Many of these genes showed increased variability in the autism cohort, which suggests a general dysregulation of the autistic immune system and overall heterogeneous activation response.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Garbett et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“Similarly significant differences were seen following genotyping of the mothers, suggesting a broad influence of the genetic background of NK activity, especially given that KIR/HLA complexes are expressed and active in the placenta (Guerini et al, 2014;Parham, 2005).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Guerini et al, 2014 source
• Not checked yetcites Parham, 2005 source

In the paper

“Among all upregulated genes found in NK cells, annotations were highly enriched for NK activity and immune response and defense, while protein biosynthesis and metabolism were downregulated.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Enstrom et al, 2009b

In the paper

“researchers have utilized the advanced techniques of next-generation sequencing and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in an attempt to divine the genetic causes of autism, generally finding a complex and varied genomic landscape (Abrahams and Geschwind, 2008;Gaugler et al, 2014;Michel et al, 2012).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Abrahams and Geschwind, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Gaugler et al, 2014 source
• Not checked yetcites Michel et al, 2012 source

In the paper

“HLA-G interacts with natural killer cells as part of the innate immune system and is primarily expressed in placental tissues as part of immune tolerance during pregnancy (Carosella et al, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Carosella et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“A 1986 study found a reduced number of T cells in individuals with autism, as well as an altered helper to suppressor T-cell ratio (Warren et al, 1986)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Warren et al, 1986 source

In the paper

“Lintas et al (2012) proposed a model whereby the dysregulated immune system leads to increased metabolism and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in both the pre-and postnatal environment.They suggest that such alterations would result in prenatal changes in proliferation, migration, and neuronal wiring, while postnatal mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS stress would lead to abnormal synaptic formation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lintas et al (2012) source

In the paper

“This MET variant also appears connected to both an increase in 37/73 kDa maternal autoantibodies and a decrease in maternal IL-10, suggesting another mechanism through which MET may associate with ASD as a susceptibility factor (Heuer et al, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Heuer et al, 2011 source

In the paper

“While there appears to be a strong immunogenetic component to many examples of ASD, there is no one single thread.”

In the paper

“Recent estimates at this site suggest that the CC and CG alleles represent a 1.76 and 1.59 relative risk, respectively, over the GG allele (Campbell et al, 2008), with an odds ratio of 1.64 for the C variant (Jackson et al, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Campbell et al, 2008 source
• Not checked yetcites Jackson et al, 2009 source

In the paper

“These genes are heavily overrepresented in the ontological KEGG natural killer cytotoxicity pathway, and are highly expressed in NK and CD8 T cells.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Gregg et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“The authors demonstrated that among a cohort of 90 continental Italian children with ASD, rates of activating KIR/HLA complexes (aKIR2DS2) were increased, while inhibitory KIR/HLA complexes (KIR 3DL1/HLABw4-80I) were decreased in the genome relative to controls.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Guerini et al (2014) source

In the paper

“This is especially so given the outsized role IL-17 has in other autoimmune conditions such as SLE and rheumatoid arthritis (Konya et al, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Konya et al, 2015 source

In the paper

“These findings are further supported by a recent report of lower IgG1 levels in the serum of boys with ASD, along with a similarly negative correlation to communication as scored by the ADI-R (Zaman et al, 2016).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Zaman et al, 2016 source

In the paper

“age of the children is most likely a contributing factor, with IgG levels changing significantly and rapidly through the first decade of life (Heuer et al, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Heuer et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“Enstrom et al (2008) found decreased plasma intracellular IL-23 in children with ASD, but no such change in IL-17”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Enstrom et al (2008) source

In the paper

“In the context of dietary proteins and food hypersensitivity, PBMCs from children with ASD produce higher levels of TNF-α and IFN-γ but not IL-5, further lending credence to a Th1-dominated response (Jyonouchi et al, 2005;Jyonouchi et al, 2002).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Jyonouchi et al, 2005 source
• Not checked yetcites Jyonouchi et al, 2002 source

In the paper

“Given that IL-23 induces IL-17 and the importance of IL-17 for inducing the MIA model of autism (Choi et al, 2016)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Choi et al, 2016 source

In the paper

“which was supported by a later study that indicated a Th2-like response was present at birth and connected increased IL-4 to more severe autism (Krakowiak et al, 2015).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Krakowiak et al, 2015

In the paper

“These NK cells are functionally different than traditional, CD56 + NK cells-they are terminally differentiated and have higher cytolytic capabilities, and generally act as innate immune regulators despite being less responsive to cytokines and connected to autoimmunity and immunodeficiency (Lopez-Verges et al, 2010;Nielsen et al, 2013).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Lopez-Verges et al, 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Nielsen et al, 2013 source

In the paper

“A related study by the same team supported these findings using PHAstimulated PBMCs, and correlated a Th1-like response with greater impairments and behavior aberrancies and a Th2-like response to better cognitive and adaptive function (Ashwood et al, 2011b).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ashwood et al, 2011b

In the paper

“NK cells in ASD individuals appear to have a baseline level of activity that is already at peak function, rendering them ill equipped for normal circulation and unable to respond further to stimulation.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Enstrom et al, 2009b

In the paper

“The evidence strongly supports distinct roles for both maternal (Braunschweig et al, 2008;Croen et al, 2008b;Singer et al, 2008;Zimmerman et al, 2007) and patient (Henneberg et al, 1994;Libbey and Fujinami, 2010;Ryberg, 1982) autoantibodies in ASD, including an ability to affect structural brain development (Nordahl et al, 2013;Rossi et al, 2011).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Braunschweig et al, 2008
• Not checked yetcites Croen et al, 2008b
• Not checked yetcites Singer et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“Numerous studies have demonstrated a correlation between cytokine levels and ASD status, and while there is a consensus that cytokines and chemokines are part of the altered immune environment noted in autism (Depino, 2013;Enstrom et al, 2010)”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Depino, 2013 source
• Not checked yetcites Enstrom et al, 2010 source

In the paper

“The research community has long noticed a correspondence between ASD and autoimmune diseases, with some suggesting autism should itself be considered an autoimmune disorder (Ashwood and Van de Water, 2004).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Ashwood and Van de Water, 2004 source

In the paper

“Just 30% of children with ASD had normal CD57 + NK cell levels, despite typical levels of CD56 + NK cells, suggesting that it is the CD57 + cells that are implicated in autism.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Siniscalco et al, 2016

In the paper

“while Al-Ayadhi and Mostafa (2012) and Akintunde et al (2015) found evidence of elevated IL-17 levels among such children in serum and PHA-stimulated PBMCs, respectively.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Al-Ayadhi and Mostafa (2012)
• Not checked yetcites Akintunde et al (2015) source

In the paper

“although there exists a correlation between the two there does appear to be at least some differences in effect (Piras et al, 2014).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Piras et al, 2014 source

In the paper

“a 2008 study of over 250 children found a reduction of plasma IgG and IgM levels circulating in young children with autism, in particular IgG, the levels of which correlated negatively with scores on the ABC, regardless of ASD status (Heuer et al, 2008).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Heuer et al, 2008 source

In the paper

“Li et al (2009) who not only found elevated levels of the chemokine IL-8, pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6, GM-CSF, and TNF-α, and the Th1 cytokine IFN-γ in autistic brain tissue, but also saw no increase in IL-4 or IL-5; as such, the authors claimed an increase in the Th1/Th2 ratio, suggesting that the Th1 arm is activated in autism.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Li et al (2009)

In the paper

“the recent groundbreaking work by Louveau et al (2015) showing active lymphatic vessels connecting the CNS to the lymphatic system that may possibly act as a conduit for neuroimmunological dysfunction.”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Louveau et al (2015) source

In the paper

“Inflammation and immune signaling dysregulation can strongly influence neuropsychiatric behavior beyond just ASD (Haroon et al, 2012;Meyer and Feldon, 2009), with evidence pointing toward roles in bipolar disorder and PTSD (Jones and Thomsen, 2013), and perhaps most emphatically in schizophrenia (Brown et al, 2004b;Meyer and Feldon, 2009;Michel et al, 2012;Patterson, 2009).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Haroon et al, 2012 source
• Not checked yetcites Meyer and Feldon, 2009 source
• Not checked yetcites Jones and Thomsen, 2013 source

In the paper

“Data from various studies regarding immune dysregulation in ASD are beginning to coalesce, but given the heterogeneity of ASD phenotypes, it remains difficult to explain different behavioral outcomes based solely on immune phenotype, and this may contribute to spurious conclusions.”

In the paper

“NK cells interact with activating and inhibitory KIRs, many of which are genetically linked to ASD.”

In the paper

“Regulators of the immune system have long been featured prominently among the genetic components of autism and are likely to continue to do so as we learn more about the myriad interactions taking place between the immune system and the brain.”

In the paper

“Other genetic factors include the oncogene MET and members of the diverse family of HLA genes.”

In the paper

“The postnatal environment echoes those lines of development, with anti-brain antibodies and systemic inflammation providing evidence of anomalies in immune regulation in a subpopulation of children with ASD.”

In the paper

“Pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-6 and IL-17 have been implicated in this process, but the mechanisms remain under investigation.”

In the paper

“NK cells interact with activating and inhibitory KIRs, many of which are genetically linked to ASD.”

In the paper

“Schizophrenia and autism share many immune similarities, including a subset of patients with an etiology based in maternal infection and immune activation (Bauman et al, 2014;Boksa, 2010;Brown et al, 2004a;Meyer et al, 2005Meyer et al, , 2007;;Patterson, 2009;Urakubo et al, 2001).”

What the sources say

• Not checked yetcites Bauman et al, 2014 source
• Not checked yetcites Boksa, 2010 source
• Not checked yetcites Brown et al, 2004a