The DOI matches its Crossref record; 123 of the 123 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 39 of the 74 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive ageing research examines the cognitive abilities that are preserved and/or those that decline with advanced age. There is great individual variability in cognitive ageing trajectories. Some older adults show little decline in cognitive ability compared with young adults and are thus termed 'optimally ageing'. By contrast, others exhibit substantial cognitive decline and may develop dementia. Human neuroimaging research has led to a number of important advances in our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying these two outcomes. However, interpreting the age-related changes and differences in brain structure, activation and functional connectivity that this research reveals is an ongoing challenge. Ambiguous terminology is a major source of difficulty in this venture. Three terms in particular - compensation, maintenance and reserve - have been used in a number of different ways, and researchers continue to disagree about the kinds of evidence or patterns of results that are required to interpret findings related to these concepts. As such inconsistencies can impede progress in both theoretical and empirical research, here, we aim to clarify and propose consensual definitions of these terms.
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Claims the paper makes
54 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 Couldn’t confirm · 11 Partly supported · 8 No basis given · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Not supported · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“However, it has been observed that when adults with high levels of reserve, as indicated by one or more reserve proxies, do eventually display cognitive decline, they do so at a rapid rate 69.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [69] Reed, B. R. et al. Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain 133, 2196–2209 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Hypothesis 4 results report that higher baseline reserve predicted slower, not faster, decline in executive function. The Discussion likewise says higher reserve was associated with less decline. The paper does not report a separate analysis of decline after its onset that would support the citing sentence's qualification. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In addition, it is likely that proxy measures of reserve may engage different neural mechanisms, each important for a different aspect reserve, such neural capacity (the total amount of neural resources available for cognition) or neural efficiency (using less neural resources—often operationalized as neural activity—to perform a cognitive task).54,56”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion considers shared and domain-specific mechanisms of age-related cognitive decline, but does not discuss proxy measures of reserve or distinguish neural capacity from neural efficiency. Searches for those terms and for cognitive-reserve proxies found no passage addressing the attributed claim; the Conclusions also say the behavioral evidence cannot establish the nature of the underlying factors. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
- Partly supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not specified) distinguishes reserve capacity in a threshold model from more efficient use of brain networks in an active model. It also identifies education as a reserve proxy, but does not say that different proxy measures engage different neural mechanisms or correspond to different aspects of reserve. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Diffusion MRI methods have shown age-related changes in white matter connectivity between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions, and within posterior sensory cortices.25–27”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [25] Musiek, E. S. & Holtzman, D. M. Mechanisms linking circadian clocks, sleep, and neurodegeneration. Science 354, 1004–1008 (2016). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Sleep and Neurodegeneration section discusses sleep, synaptic function, and medial prefrontal amyloid pathology, while the Circadian function and neurodegeneration section discusses age-related circadian changes. Neither addresses diffusion MRI or the specified age-related white matter connectivity changes. Searches for diffusion MRI and for connectivity in posterior sensory cortices found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Could not verifycites [26] Hullinger, R. & Puglielli, L. Molecular and cellular aspects of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease. Behav. Brain Res. 322, 191–205 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction and §5.1 discuss age-related brain and synaptic changes, but not diffusion MRI findings about the specified cortical connections. Searches for diffusion MRI, white matter, and prefrontal-to-posterior or posterior sensory connectivity found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Partly supportedcites [27] Mattson, M. P. & Arumugam, T. V. Hallmarks of brain aging: adaptive and pathological modification by metabolic states. Cell Metab. 27, 1176–1199 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The 'Aberrant Neuronal Network Activity' section says white matter integrity is compromised during normal aging and describes age-related changes in functional connectivity. It does not say that diffusion MRI showed changes specifically between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions or within posterior sensory cortices. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The development of expertise is associated with the presence of richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, which can attenuate age-related decline in the domain of expertise.54,65–67”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract reports age-related cognitive decline, and the Discussion notes that some variation in decline is domain-specific. Neither passage addresses whether expertise produces richer conceptual representations or attenuates decline in an expert domain. Searches for expertise and domain-specific protection found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [65] Alladi, S. et al. Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology 81, 1938–1944 (2013). source
- Partly supportedcites [66] Anthony, M. & Lin, F. A. Systematic review for functional neuroimaging studies of cognitive reserve across the cognitive aging spectrum. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx125 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not available) says cognitive reserve may help people tolerate or compensate for the effects of aging and discusses delaying cognitive decline. It does not address expertise, richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, or protection specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Partly supportedcites [67] Reed, B. R. et al. Cognitive activities during adulthood are more important than education in building reserve. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17, 615–624 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) links midlife cognitive activity to greater semantic-memory reserve and suggests that abilities may be maintained to different degrees in the face of dementia. It does not examine expertise or say that developing expertise produces richer, more differentiated conceptual representations; nor does it demonstrate reduced age-related decline specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.79)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“A good example of a factor that promotes reserve is education, which improves neural resources during childhood and young adulthood, possibly by enhancing synaptic density 50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses formal education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not as a means of improving neural resources. A search of our copy for neural resources, cognitive reserve, and synaptic density found no passage addressing the claimed mechanism during childhood or young adulthood. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For instance, one study found that greater cognitive reserve, as measured using IQ and education-occupation as proxies, was associated with lower activity during cognitive processing, suggesting more effective use of cerebral networks.30”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [30] Sampedro-Piquero, P., Alvarez-Suarez, P. & Begega, A. Coping with stress during aging: the importance of a resilient brain. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 16, 284–296 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Effects on Neurobiological Resilient Mechanisms” (page unavailable), the paper reports lower metabolic activity in aged, enriched rats performing a spatial-learning task. It does not link that activity to cognitive reserve measured by IQ or education–occupation, and it proposes better stress coping rather than more effective use of cerebral networks. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Also, cross-sectional designs can be contaminated by birth cohort effects, including inter-generational IQ increases (the ‘Flynn Effect’).43,44”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [43] Giorgio, A. et al. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage 51, 943–951 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) says the study’s cross-sectional design compares different cohorts across age groups and may be less sensitive to lifespan brain changes than a longitudinal design. This supports the general concern about cohort effects, but our copy does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [44] Madden, D. J. et al. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive control. Neuroimage 52, 643–657 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion’s Limitations section says cross-sectional age-group differences reflect cohort differences as well as chronological age. It does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Genetic55 and environmental factors,54,56 including longer education,32 greater physical activity,57 active participation in demanding leisure activities58 and bilingualism59,60 impact individual differences in reserve.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [55] Stern, Y., Gazes, Y., Razlighi, Q., Steffener, J. & Habeck, C. A task-invariant cognitive reserve network. Neuroimage 178, 36–45 (2018). source
The Introduction states that educational attainment, exercise, and leisure activities may account for individual differences in cognitive reserve. This supports the environmental-factors point to which this source is cited; the sentence separately cites other sources for genetics and bilingualism. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Partly supportedcites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) suggests that lifestyle and common genetic variation may contribute to individual differences in rates of cognitive decline. It does not establish that these factors affect individual differences in reserve. The specific examples in the sentence have separate citations and are not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). source
The citation to this paper is attached to longer education, not to the other factors in the sentence. The Abstract links education to reserve and reports that higher education correlated with a hippocampal microstructural measure; the Introduction likewise describes education-dependent differences in brain structure and function. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [32] Morgan, D. G. The dopamine and serotonin systems during aging in human and rodent brain. A brief review. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 11, 153–157 (1987). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Possibly, at some level, the burden of pathology becomes great enough to overcome this protective mechanism, resulting in rapid cognitive decline31,53.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [31] Rosario, E. R., Chang, L., Head, E. H., Stanczyk, F. Z. & Pike, C. J. Brain levels of sex steroid hormones in men and women during normal aging and in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 604–613 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion describes a possible protective role for sex hormones against Alzheimer’s pathology, but does not discuss cognitive reserve, a pathology threshold that overcomes it, or rapid cognitive decline. Searches for reserve and pathology-threshold language found no passage addressing that proposed sequence. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [53] Raz, N. et al. Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb. Cortex 15, 1676–1689 (2005). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion says the study found no support for the brain reserve hypothesis, while noting that its cognitive measures were too narrow to settle the question. It discusses pathology and brain shrinkage, but does not address whether a threshold of pathology overcomes reserve and causes rapid cognitive decline (searched: pathology burden, reserve, protective mechanism, rapid cognitive decline). (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“One example of how increased capacity is associated with a proxy measure of reserve is the aforementioned effect of education on synaptic density.50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not its effect on synaptic density. Searches for synaptic density, neural capacity, and reserve found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed association. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
- It may state two separate claims as one. 31
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have shown that normal aging is associated with gray matter volume reductions and functional alterations in several regions critical for higher cognitive function: prefrontal, medial temporal and parietal cortices.21–24”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [21] Roy, A. K. et al. Impacts of transcriptional regulation on aging and senescence. Ageing Res. Rev. 1, 367–380 (2002). source
- Could not verifycites [22] Foster, T. C. Role of estrogen receptor alpha and beta expression and signaling on cognitive function during aging. Hippocampus 22, 656–669 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper’s section on ERα and ERβ expression and E2-induced synaptogenesis discusses age-related synaptic and memory changes, not MRI findings. Searches for gray-matter volume, MRI, and the specified cortical regions found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed regional volume reductions and functional alterations. (LLM, conf=0.75)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] Papenberg, G., Salami, A., Persson, J., Lindenberger, U. & Backman, L. Genetics and functional imaging: effects of APOE, BDNF, COMT, and KIBRA in aging. Neuropsychol Rev. 25, 47–62 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 (Apoptosis; page unavailable) discusses possible neuronal loss with aging, but does not report MRI findings, gray matter volume reductions, or functional changes in the named cortices. Searches for those cortical regions and for MRI and gray matter volume found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that young adults may also upregulate activity in response to increased task demands, but that the demand threshold for upregulation may be higher in young, compared to older adults24,36.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 discusses apoptosis and neuronal compensation after cell loss; Figure 1 discusses thresholds at which tissue health becomes compromised. Neither addresses activity upregulation in response to task demands or compares the demand thresholds of young and older adults (searched for task demands and cognitive activity upregulation). Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased fMRI activity in people with mild cognitive impairment or at risk of Alzheimer’s disease, but does not compare young and older adults’ responses to increasing task demands. Searches for young adults, task difficulty, and demand thresholds found no passage addressing the proposed difference in upregulation thresholds. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, given the link between exercise and white-matter integrity,70 it is possible that individuals who exercise regularly maintain white-matter integrity better than other aspects of the brain.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [70] Bernardi, G. et al. How skill expertise shapes the brain functional architecture: an fMRI study of visuo-spatial and motor processing in professional racing-car and naive drivers. PLOS ONE 8, e77764 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the asserted link between exercise and white-matter integrity. The Conclusions discuss psycho-physical training and functional brain efficiency, while the Methods mention white matter only as a signal used in fMRI processing; neither addresses white-matter integrity in people who exercise regularly (page numbers unavailable). Searched for white-matter integrity, exercise, and physical training. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Linking compensation to successful performance (Box 1) helps distinguish compensation from activation differences due to inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology (Box 2)80.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [80] Gorbach, T. et al. Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiol. Aging 51, 167–176 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (§3.3) link hippocampal change with episodic-memory change, and the Discussion (§4) relates preserved memory to brain maintenance. Neither addresses whether linking compensation to successful performance distinguishes it from inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology. Searches for those terms and for activation differences found no relevant passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Although greater activity in older adults may merely reflect inefficiency,82 it is difficult to interpret greater activity as inefficient when it correlates positively with cognitive performance, which is one of our requirements for applying the term compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [82] Pudas, S. et al. Brain characteristics of individuals resisting age-related cognitive decline over two decades. J. Neurosci. 33, 8668–8677 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the suggestion that greater activity in older adults may reflect inefficiency, not to the citing authors’ subsequent argument about performance correlations. The Introduction and Discussion discuss greater activation as possible compensation, neural capacity, or a longstanding individual difference, but do not address inefficiency. Searches for “inefficiency” and “inefficient neural activity” found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similar to the concept of reserve, the mechanisms contributing to maintenance are also likely to have both genetic77 and environmental origins, with the latter including factors such as diet, exercise, and cognitive and social engagement33,57,78.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [77] Vaci, N., Gula, B. & Bilalic, M. Is age really cruel to experts? Compensatory effects of activity. Psychol. Aging 30, 740–754 (2015). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Stern, Y. Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 20, 112–117 (2006). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In MEASURES OF RESERVE (p. 2), Stern discusses genetic and environmental influences on reserve and says that exercise and stimulating environments promote neurogenesis in animals. EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVIDENCE FOR CR (p. 2) links cognitive and social activities with lower dementia risk. The paper does not address diet or establish these factors as mechanisms of maintenance, rather than reserve. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [78] Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. & Tsai, W. Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation. Neurology 1, 1942–1947 (1999). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Several studies36,38–41 have found that, consistent with reduced neural resources, older adults show a greater increase in activity, a lower asymptote, and an earlier decline than younger adults”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased activation in people at risk for Alzheimer’s disease, followed by loss of activation as cognitive impairment worsens; it does not compare activation patterns in older and younger adults. Searches for “asymptote” and age-related activation under increasing task demand found no passage addressing the claimed lower asymptote or earlier decline. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] Tromp, D., Dufour, A., Lithfous, S., Pebayle, T. & Despres, O. Episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer disease: insights from imaging and behavioral studies. Ageing Res. Rev. 24, 232–262 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [39] Walhovd, K. B. et al. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 916–932 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports age-related differences in brain volume, including accelerating white-matter volume loss after middle age. It does not address the claimed pattern of neural activity—a greater increase, lower asymptote, and earlier decline in older adults (searched: activity, neural resources, and functional activation). (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] Rajah, M. N., Maillet, D. & Grady, C. L. in The Wiley Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory (eds Addis, D., Barense, M. & Duarte, A.) 347–361 (Wiley Publishers, New York, 2015). source
- Partly supportedcites [41] Nyberg, L. et al. Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 22682–22686 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion report reduced frontal activity as older adults were followed over time, which supports an age-related reduction in recruitment. They do not establish the claimed greater increase in activity, lower asymptote, or earlier decline relative to younger adults; the Discussion cautions that cross-sectional signs of increased activity reflected a selected elderly sample. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
- Could not verify
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The time-scale of maintenance processes likely varies depending on the neural level at which it takes place (molecules, cells or systems).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reserve is hypothesized to accumulate before neural resources demonstrate age-related decreases, over a period of years.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that if reserve is defined merely as “the factor that individuals with greater reserve have,” and then this factor is used to explain why some individuals have greater reserve, the argument is clearly circular.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to emphasize that the mechanisms of reserve, maintenance, and compensation are not static but dynamic and modifiable, and they are likely not only responsible for modifying behavior, but are in turn modified by such changes.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maintenance occurs throughout the lifespan but may become more critical in old age, as neural deterioration becomes more severe.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Presumably reserve accumulates most during childhood and young adulthood, but it may also build up in older age,9”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Rajah, M. N. & D’Esposito, M. Region-specific changes in prefrontal function with age: a review of PET and fMRI studies on working and episodic memory. Brain 128, 1964–1983 (2005). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, whereas older participants are typically recruited only from the sub-set of people who aged successfully, young adult samples are more heterogeneous.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although they have their own limitations,46 longitudinal designs avoid these problems and can consistently demonstrate large individual differences in rates of age-related decline.47,48”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Lindenberger, U. Human cognitive aging: corriger la fortune? Science 346, 572–578 (2014). source
- Not matchedcites [47] World Health Organisation. World Report on Ageing and Health (eds Beard, J., Officer, A. & Cassels, A.) (WHO, Luxembourg, 2015).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Habib, R., Nyberg, L. & Nilsson, L. G. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the Betula study. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 14, 257–273 (2007). source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ideal case, accumulated reserve is enough to completely offset age-related neural decline, whereas in the typical case, it only attenuates this decline.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the optimal case, repair processes fully counteract decline. In the typical scenario, however, repair processes do not completely offset neural deterioration, leading to a gradual process of age-related neural deterioration.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, some individuals may be relatively spared from detrimental brain changes in the first place resulting in a high likelihood of displaying maintenance regardless of the capacity for repair.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individual differences reflecting compensation, in contrast, might be expected to differ according to the nature of the cognitive challenge, and to correlate more with individual differences in task performance than with proxy measures of reserve”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences related to reserve might be expected to manifest as ‘trait-like’ effects that are evident across a range of different cognitive domains, and to correlate with independent proxies of reserve, such as IQ or educational level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve and maintenance (FIGS. 1–B/C), processes of age-related ‘neural decline’ (such as brain atrophy, synaptic loss, white-matter degradation, etc.) are countered by processes of ‘neural enhancement,’ that is, the creation, replenishment, and repair of neural resources (brain anatomy and physiology mediating cognitive processes).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, over the years, these terms have been used inconsistently, creating confusion and slowing progress.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas hippocampal maintenance has been associated with episodic memory maintenance, the maintenance of other brain regions is likely to be associated with the preservation of other cognitive abilities33.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, PFC maintenance could be associated with the maintenance of cognitive control.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the context of aging, it is more appropriate to emphasize the loss in neural resources.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a point on which our view departs from some uses of the term compensation in the literature, where the term is often applied to any age-related increase in brain activity, or to the recruitment of additional brain regions in older but not young adults, regardless of relationship with performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, although the concepts of reserve and maintenance are similar, we view them as complementary perspectives on how environmental and biological factors influence brain aging and cognition.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve, these factors cumulative influence neural capacity and neural efficiency (and other mechanisms not yet identified due to limits of technology). In the case of maintenance, these factors influence neural mechanisms of repair and plasticity (and others not yet identified).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The important point is that the process selected by older adults is also available to young adults, but less likely to be the one that supports their performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, older adults may show activation in a different region than young adults, but this region could be a different component of the same functional network recruited by younger adults, suggesting compensation by upregulation rather than selection.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We posit that these forms of compensation are not mutually exclusive such that one or more may co-occur within or across individuals.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by upregulation refers to the enhancement of cognitive performance by boosting a neural process in response to task demands.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We acknowledge that reserve has an impact on later maintenance, and vice versa, as the accumulated reserve must be maintained.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is theoretically possible that the extent to which different maintenance mechanisms operate depends on initial brain measures.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our view, without a link to performance, these findings should be simply described as age-related differences (increases or decreases) in activity, and not as compensatory activity.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The closest analogy to this type of compensation would be the development of new neural mechanisms following brain damage.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This gap may be due to an age-related reduction in neural resources (e.g., brain atrophy, reduced blood flow, neurotransmitter deficits, reduced neural specificity, etc.), due to an increase in task demands, or both.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reserve is about enhancing and augmenting resources, whereas maintenance is about their up-keep.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by selection occurs when older adults recruit neural circuitry associated with cognitive processes that are available to but not engaged by young adults under the same objective task conditions.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, evidence should be available that the enhanced activation in older adults is related to a beneficial effect on cognitive performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Finally, compensation by reorganization occurs when older adults use an alternative neural mechanism to respond to aging-induced losses that is not available to younger individuals76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
““brain maintainers” include individuals who start with above-average brain measures in early adulthood (e.g., larger hippocampus) and maintain these high levels into older age, as well as individuals who start below average (e.g., smaller hippocampus) and maintaining functioning at that lower level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found it necessary to distinguish among three different mechanisms or forms of compensation (all incorporating the two criteria above): upregulation, selection, and recruitment of additional processes (see FIG 3).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Greater brain activity or connectivity is sometimes interpreted as being beneficial to older adults, without any additional supporting evidence.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation is temporally linked to variations in cognitive demands and can occur rapidly, in a matter of seconds.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In summary, we see maintenance as a dynamic process that engages neural mechanisms of cellular repair and may overlap to a large degree with mechanisms of brain plasticity in adulthood76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, older adults may engage a less effective but also a less demanding process, whereas younger adults prefer a more effective but more demanding one.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, given the close interaction between different brain structures and processes, it is also possible to talk about general brain maintenance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although these alternative circuits may be less effective than the original ones, their recruitment may still benefit performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, we believe that two basic criteria must be fulfilled in order to attribute greater activity/connectivity in older adults to compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that maintenance is operationalized as a relative lack of decline in one or more neural measures, and not in absolute terms”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In functional neuroimaging studies, compensation is often used to describe a situation in which brain activity, or functional connectivity, is greater, or more widespread, in older adults than in younger adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although we have discussed reserve, maintenance, and compensation in separate sections, they can operate concurrently and affect each other.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, individuals with neurological disease or disorder may compensate for their disorder-related deficit in ways similar to those described here for healthy older adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that although we compared reorganization due to aging and due to brain damage, they differ in several ways, including the fact that the time-course of aging is slow whereas the course of brain injury is fast.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, when considering the potential effects of cognitive training on promoting reserve, one has to consider whether age-related deficits in maintenance will render these effects less effective.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, we note that despite our focus on healthy aging, the concepts we have discussed also can be applied in other domains, including child development, acute brain injury, neurodegeneration, and psychiatric illness”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Mechanisms, understood as putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis, such as genetic, cellular, and system levels.
“We assume that mechanisms, which refer to putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis (genetic, cellular, system, etc.).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Because of age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed them when younger.
“we assume that due to age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed their younger selves.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
“It is assumed that the asymptote reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects the breakdown in cognitive performance when these resources are exceeded.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reserve cannot be measured directly.
“Given that it is not possible to measure reserve directly, most studies of reserve have focused on a particular proxy and how it relates to the functioning brain.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most cognitive aging research so far has used samples composed largely of healthy, well-educated, high-functioning older adults who are mostly Caucasian.
“We also note with caution that most studies of cognitive aging to date have been limited to testing samples of high functioning, highly educated, and mostly Caucasian healthy older adults.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similar protective effects of education have been observed in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia50,51, indicating some commonality with other neurodegenerative conditions.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We caution that neurocognitive reserve is a complex construct that is operationalized using proxies such as education, but it cannot be directly measured51.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These findings would be consistent with education promoting neurocognitive reserve51, increasing resilience to neuronal degeneration resulting from MS injury and aging.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Previous research has indicated that, compared with abstract verbal cues, photographs as concrete visual materials are more likely to stimulate memory retrieval and facilitate detailed event recall and narrative development (Benoit et al., 2015;Petrelli & Whittaker, 2010).”
From Designing for Reminiscence in Digital Photo Systems for Older Adults: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as Cabeza et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citations
Cites
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An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
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Self-citationImaging Cognition II: An Empirical Review of 275 PET and fMRI Studies
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Self-citationThe World report on ageing and health: a policy framework for healthy ageing
Beard, J. R., Officer, A., de Carvalho, I. A., Sadana, R., Pot, A. M., Michel, J.-P., Lloyd-Sherlock, P., Epping-Jordan, J. E., Peeters, G. M. E. E. (., Mahanani, W. R., et al. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)00516-4 · Cited by 3,287
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Regional Brain Changes in Aging Healthy Adults: General Trends, Individual Differences and Modifiers
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Self-citationThe adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding
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Self-citationAlbert, M., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D. W., Dubois, B., Feldman, H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A. C., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., et al. (2013) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.11.1.96 · Cited by 2,643
Self-citationHemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults: the HAROLD model
Cabeza, R. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.85 · Cited by 2,125
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Nyberg, L., Pudas, S. & Lundquist, A. in Cogntiive Neuroscience of Aging 2nd edn (eds Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L. & Park, D. C.) (Oxford Univ. Press, 2016).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 1,202
Gonzalez‐Burgos, L., Barroso, J., & Ferreira, D. (2020) · Aging · doi:10.18632/aging.202177 · Cited by 20
“Compensation refers to the maintenance or enhancement of performance by recruiting brain areas or networks not normally used for a specific task, as a response to brain deterioration [7] or high cognitive demands [8].”
BackgroundCortical Networks Underpinning Compensation of Verbal Fluency in Normal Aging
Gonzalez‐Burgos, L., Pereira, J. B., Mohanty, R., Barroso, J., Westman, E., & Ferreira, D. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab052 · Cited by 19
“Hence, reduced efficiency and increased transitivity associated with lower performance in older individuals is in line with our hypothesis and suggests that this pattern of network organization is aberrant or inefficient (Logan et al. 2002; Park et al. 2004; Reuter-Lorenz and Cappell 2008; Grady 2008; Meunier et al. 2…”
BackgroundResultReifegerste, J., Meyer, A. S., Zwitserlood, P., & Ullman, M. T. (2021) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2021.104941 · Cited by 21
Cognitive Trajectories and Dementia Risk: A Comparison of Two Cognitive Reserve Measures
Gallo, F., Kalpouzos, G., Laukka, E. J., Wang, R., Qiu, C., Bäckman, L., Marseglia, A., Fratiglioni, L., & Dekhtyar, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.737736 · Cited by 19
“Our findings provide input for the advancement of the CR theory, which continues to undergo considerable debate (Jones et al., 2011; Cabeza et al., 2018, 2019; Stern et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMethodReply to ‘Mechanisms underlying resilience in ageing’
Cabeza, R. E. L., Albert, M., Belleville, S., et al. (2019) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-019-0139-z · Cited by 19
Self-citationFunctional alterations of the prefrontal circuit underlying cognitive aging in mice
Chong, H. R., Ranjbar-Slamloo, Y., Ho, M. Z. H., Ouyang, X., & Kamigaki, T. (2023) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-023-43142-0 · Cited by 19
Cipriani, G. E., Molfese, S., Giovannelli, F., Güntekin, B., Vitali, N., Marcato, R., & Amanzio, M. (2025) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106121 · Cited by 21
“…damage and individual differences in the neurobiological state of the brain, respectively (Stern, 2009; Stern et al., 2023), other researchers have argued that the distinction between these two concepts is somewhat artificial, as cognition is inherently brain-dependent (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
Landelle, C., Chancel, M., Blanchard, C. C. V., et al. (2021) · Current Opinion in Physiology · doi:10.1016/j.cophys.2021.01.016 · Cited by 18
Bianchi, R., & Schonfeld, I. S. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.111213 · Cited by 20
“Indeed, because of the very nature of their activity, education professionals may benefit from above-average cognitive reserves allowing them to better compensate for the undermining effects of depressive symptoms on cognitive performance (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundAge differences in the neural processing of semantics, within and beyond the core semantic network
Wu, W., & Hoffman, P. (2023) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.07.022 · Cited by 18
Schott, B. H., Soch, J., Kizilirmak, J. M., Schütze, H., Assmann, A., Maaß, A., Ziegler, G., Sauvage, M. M., & Richter, A. (2023) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2023.107765 · Cited by 16
“5,55 One possible interpretation for this apparent discrepancy is that compensatory activity might be particularly relevant in older adults with pre-clinical or subclinical memory impairment.”
BackgroundLi, J., Zhang, Y., You, Y., Huang, Z., Wu, L., Liang, C., Weng, B., Pan, L., Huang, Y., Huang, Y., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Immunology · doi:10.3389/fimmu.2024.1360687 · Cited by 21
“At the same time, our results and previous literature con fi rm the correlation between cognition and aging (44 – 46).”
ResultUnderstanding cognition and how it changes with aging, brain disease, and lifestyle choices
Machado, L. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2020.1796102 · Cited by 17
Fischer, F. U., Wolf, D. G. F., Tüscher, O., Fellgiebel, A., & Initiative, O. B. O. A. D. N. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.637002 · Cited by 18
“or compensate cerebral pathology, commonly termed reserve or—more generally—resilience (Yaffe et al., 2011; Barulli and Stern, 2013; Cabeza et al., 2018; Wolf et al., 2018).”
BackgroundNarbutas, J., Chylinski, D., Egroo, M. V., Bahri, M. A., Koshmanova, E., Besson, G., Muto, V., Schmidt, C., Luxen, A., Balteau, E., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.666181 · Cited by 23
Isernia, S., Cabinio, M., Tella, S. D., Pazzi, S., Vannetti, F., Gerli, F., Mosca, I. E., Lombardi, G., Macchi, C., Sorbi, S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210347 · Cited by 19
Motion, Relation, and Passion in Brain Physiological and Cognitive Aging
Sigmundsson, H., Dybendal, B. H., & Grassini, S. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12091122 · Cited by 20
“The basic elements of a person’s brain function that changes over the brain development are related to the white and grey matter of the brain [1,2].”
BackgroundRichter, A., Soch, J., Kizilirmak, J. M., Fischer, L., Schütze, H., Assmann, A., Behnisch, G., Feldhoff, H., Knopf, L., Raschick, M., et al. (2023) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26281 · Cited by 15
“Even healthy older adults commonly exhibit a certain degree of cognitive decline and brain structural alterations (Anthony & Lin, 2018; Cabeza et al., 2018; X. Li et al., 2020).”
Backgrounds-CRIq: the online short version of the Cognitive Reserve Index Questionnaire
Mondini, S., Pucci, V., Pastore, M., Gaggi, O., Tricomi, P. P., & Nucci, M. (2023) · Aging Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1007/s40520-023-02561-1 · Cited by 16
“…has been exported - with increasing success - to areas that involve other pathological conditions, such as Parkinson’s disease [5], multiple sclerosis [6], traumatic brain injury [7, 8], stroke [9], psychiatric disorders [10], and, not least, healthy cognitive ageing [11], and adolescence [12].”
Reserve, resilience and maintenance of episodic memory and other cognitive functions in aging
Schwarz, C., Franz, C. E., Kremen, W. S., & Vuoksimaa, E. (2024) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2024.04.011 · Cited by 17
Baciu, M., & Roger, É. (2024) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12736 · Cited by 20
Hou, M., de Chastelaine, M., Donley, B. E., & Rugg, M. D. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.11.004 · Cited by 15
Self-citationHirst, R. J., Whelan, R., Boyle, R. T., Setti, A., Knight, S. P., O’Connor, J. D., Williamson, W., McMorrow, J. P., Fagan, A. J., Meaney, J. F., et al. (2020) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2020.12.004 · Cited by 17
Williams, B. D., Pendleton, N., & Chandola, T. (2021) · Aging Neuropsychology and Cognition · doi:10.1080/13825585.2021.1889958 · Cited by 18
“(E. M. Arenaza-Urquijo & Vemuri, 2018; Cabeza et al., 2018; Stern et al., 2018) In this paper the framework of Stern et al. (2018) will be drawn upon.”
BackgroundLearning as an Important Privilege: A Life Span Perspective with Implications for Successful Aging
Wu, R., Zhao, J., Cheung, C. S.-S., Natsuaki, M. N., Rebok, G. W., & Strickland-Hughes, C. M. (2021) · Human Development · doi:10.1159/000514554 · Cited by 18
Haitas, N., Amiri, M., Wilson, M. A., Joanette, Y., & Steffener, J. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0249948 · Cited by 18
Self-citationZdanowski, S., Tieks, A., Jeronimus, B. F., & Zuidersma, M. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-210304 · Cited by 18
“Because the magnitude of the short-term variability can be a reflection of adaptive and nonadaptive cognitive processes [26] and neural compensation [27], it may be worthwhile to evaluate its potential as an additional outcome parameter or diagnostic marker.”
BackgroundRimmele, U., Ballhausen, N., Ihle, A., & Kliegel, M. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12020244 · Cited by 18
“One important proxy of socioeconomic reserves is socioeconomic status, which includes indicators such as education, occupation, and income [32].”
BackgroundRischer, K. M., Anton, F., González‐Roldán, A. M., Montoya, P., & van der Meulen, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.828742 · Cited by 22
Liu, X., TYLER, L. K., Cam‐CAN, Rowe, J. B., & Tsvetanov, K. A. (2022) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26025 · Cited by 17
“In subjects with dementia, the cognitively relevant dynamics of functional network, morphometry and vasculature might be more dependent on one another and such dependency might correlate with a compensation mechanism (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
Rostral-middle locus coeruleus integrity and subjective cognitive decline in early old age
Bell, T. R., Elman, J. A., Beck, A. I., Fennema‐Notestine, C., Gustavson, D. E., Hagler, D. J., Jak, A. J., Lyons, M. J., Puckett, O. K., Toomey, R., et al. (2022) · Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society · doi:10.1017/s1355617722000881 · Cited by 19
Klobušiaková, P., Mekyska, J., Brabenec, L., Galáž, Z., Zvončák, V., Mucha, J., Rapcsak, S. Z., & Rektorová, I. (2021) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2021.02.012 · Cited by 17
Inhibition of emotions in healthy aging: age‐related differences in brain network connectivity
Almdahl, I. S., Martinussen, L. J., Agartz, I., Hugdahl, K., & Korsnes, M. S. (2021) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.2052 · Cited by 18
Nunes, I., & Nunes, M. V. S. (2021) · Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1080/13803395.2021.2014788 · Cited by 16
“There is extensive epidemiological and experimental evidence for CR’s protective role in cognitive status in neurodegenerative diseases (Bennett et al., 2003; Foley et al., 2012; Hindle et al., 2016) and normal aging (Cabeza et al., 2018; Duda et al., 2014).”
BackgroundWang, L., Wu, P., Brown, P., Zhang, W., Liu, F., Han, Y., Zuo, C., Cheng, W., & Feng, J. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000200814 · Cited by 16
“These neural resources are often referred to as brain reserve (BR), which is typically operationalized by brain volume in human neuroimaging studies.(28)”
BackgroundWang, X., Huang, C., Tsai, S., Lin, C., & Cai, Q. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1331574 · Cited by 19
“…the reorganization process aids in compensating for their higher-order abilities, such as executive and memory functions (Cabeza, 2002; Cabeza et al., 2002; Daselaar et al., 2015; Cabeza et al., 2018), and for impoverished perceptual input, especially in the visual domain (Roberts and Allen, 2016).”
BackgroundPlini, E. R. G., Melnychuk, M. C., Andrews, R., Boyle, R. T., Whelan, R., Spence, J. S., Chapman, S. B., Robertson, I. H., & Dockree, P. M. (2024) · Acta Physiologica · doi:10.1111/apha.14191 · Cited by 20
Bernal, J., Menze, I., Yakupov, R., Peters, O., Hellmann‐Regen, J., Freiesleben, S. D., Priller, J., Spruth, E. J., Altenstein, S., Schneider, A., et al. (2024) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-024-01606-5 · Cited by 17
“This simultaneous association may indicate potentially higher brain maintenance as a mechanism of healthy ageing [69] and may be multifaceted.”
BackgroundThe oscillatory mechanisms associated with syntactic binding in healthy ageing
Poulisse, C., Wheeldon, L. R., Limachya, R., Mazaheri, A., & Segaert, K. (2020) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107523 · Cited by 16
Reduced Facilitation of Parietal-Motor Functional Connections in Older Adults
Goldenkoff, E. R., Cook, R. N. L., Brown, S. H., & Vesia, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.595288 · Cited by 15
“Functional neuroimaging studies have consistently demonstrated enhanced prefrontal influences on the motor system in response to increased task demands in older adults (Heuninckx et al., 2005; Wu and Hallett, 2005; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWhat Can Neural Activity Tell Us About Cognitive Resources in Aging?
Tagliabue, C. F., & Mazza, V. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.753423 · Cited by 16
Klever, L., Mamassian, P., & Billino, J. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-09939-7 · Cited by 16
Reading activities compensate for low education-related cognitive deficits
Wang, Y., Wang, S., Zhu, W., Liang, N., Zhang, C., Pei, Y., Wáng, Q., Li, S., & Shi, J. (2022) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-022-01098-1 · Cited by 16
Roe, J. M., Dídac Vidal-piñeiro, A., Sneve, M. H., Kompus, K., Greve, D. N., Walhovd, K. B., Fjell, A. M., & Westerhausen, R. (2019) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhz153 · Cited by 17
Spalding, D. M., MacAngus, K., Moen, M. K., & Brown, L. A. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.747839 · Cited by 27
Reineberg, A. E., Banich, M. T., Wager, T. D., & Friedman, N. P. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118845 · Cited by 17
More flexible brain activation underlies cognitive reserve in older adults
Ducharme‐Laliberté, G., Mellah, S., Boller, B., & Belleville, S. (2022) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.02.001 · Cited by 15
Self-citationM/EEG Dynamics Underlying Reserve, Resilience, and Maintenance in Aging: A Review
Jauny, G., Eustache, F., & Hinault, T. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.861973 · Cited by 16
“This increased recruitment of brain regions has been associated with cognitive performance and is referred to as compensation (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundXiao, Z., Zhou, Y., Zhong, W., Li, Y., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Zhang, R., Sun, J., Sun, Y., & Lou, M. (2022) · Aging and Disease · doi:10.14336/ad.2022.1206 · Cited by 15
“On the contrary, in low PWMH burden subgroup, the level of cognitive maintenance was regardless of the repair capacity [29].”
Koshino, H., Osaka, M., Shimokawa, T., Kaneda, M., Taniguchi, S., Minamoto, T., Yaoi, K., Azuma, M., Higo, K., & Osaka, N. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1140399 · Cited by 17
“It is well known that, in general, cognitive functions decline with increasing age (e.g., Hasher and Zacks, 1988; Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Grady, 2012; Cabeza et al., 2018; Salthouse, 2019).”
BackgroundConceptualizing healthy cognitive aging: the role of time and variability
Rodrigues, E. A., & Moreno, S. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1240630 · Cited by 15
Sagheddu, C., Stojanovic, T., Kouhnavardi, S., Savchenko, A. A., Hussein, A. M., Pistis, M., Monje, F. J., Plasenzotti, R., Aufy, M., Studenik, C. R., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2024.1357347 · Cited by 14
“Preservation of well-being, independence, and high quality of life relies on the maintenance of molecular and functional processes underlying affective and cognitive brain activity (Cabeza et al., 2018; Aron et al., 2022).”
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“48,70).”
The Hidden Dangers of Sedentary Living: Insights into Molecular, Cellular, and Systemic Mechanisms
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“Indeed, a number of studies of cognitive reserve, maintenance, and compensation discussed by Cabeza et al. (2018) or studies of superagers discussed by Nyberg and Pudas (2019) were not included in the present review because they did not meet eligibility criterion of operationalizing SA as a…”
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“However, self-reported health and multilingualism could also contribute to cognitive reserve [34].”
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“This reorganization complicates the identification of optimal stimulation targets [72,79], as – in addition to more variable neural networks in older adults – older compared to young adults may engage different networks for the same task [23,80].”
Alejandro, R. J., Packard, P. A., Steiger, T. K., Fuentemilla, L., & Bunzeck, N. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.683908 · Cited by 16
Dietary nitrate and brain health. Too much ado about nothing or a solution for dementia prevention?
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“Similar to other physiological parameters such as bone mass(6) and lung function(7), the trajectory of neurocognitive function is typically represented by the shape of a Maxwell– Boltzmann distribution curve(8).”
BackgroundNyberg, L. H., Karalija, N., Papenberg, G., Salami, A., Andersson, M., Pedersen, R., Vikner, T. P., Garrett, D. D., Riklund, K., Wåhlin, A., et al. (2022) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-022-25503-9 · Cited by 19
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Modeling the neurocognitive dynamics of language across the lifespan
Guichet, C., Banjac, S., Achard, S., Mermillod, M., & Baciu, M. (2024) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26650 · Cited by 16
“Through their precise adjustments of connectivity among adjacent regions (Bertolero et al., 2018), connector hubs imbue the network with integrative and flexible properties, thereby offsetting any decrease in specialization (as suggested by Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundThe media literacy theory of change and the message interpretation process model
Austin, E. W., & Domgaard, S. (2024) · Communication Theory · doi:10.1093/ct/qtae018 · Cited by 16
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Neural dynamics of semantic categorization in semantic variant of primary progressive aphasia
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“This hypothesis has rapidly gained prominence in the research field, stimulating the exploration of related constructs such as compensation, brain maintenance, and cognitive reserve (CR) [7].”
BackgroundOpenness to Experience is associated with neural and performance measures of memory in older adults
Stolz, C., Bulla, A., Soch, J., Schott, B. H., & Richter, A. (2023) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsad041 · Cited by 17
“These areas are also affected by aging, indicating decreased occipital activity during working memory, visual attention and episodic retrieval tasks (Cabeza et al. , 2004; Davis et al. , 2008) and a disproportionate recruitment of the left vs right visual cortex during encoding of visual episodic…”
BackgroundZuo, N., Salami, A., Liu, H., Yang, Z., & Jiang, T. (2019) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2019.09.006 · Cited by 13
“, structural and functional preservation of the brain in terms of limited brain pathology in some older adults) may result in intact cognitive ability in older age (Cabeza et al., 2018; Nyberg et al., 2012).”
BackgroundHallmarks of healthy cognitive aging: Inter-individual differences in aging trajectories
Abrous, D. N., Blin, N., Boraxbekk, C., Catheline, G., Fitzsimons, C. P., Hilscher, M. M., Lemoine, M., Lopes, L. V., Maass, A., Nilsson, M., et al. (2026) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2026.103102 · Cited by 18
Self-citationSex-Specific Protective Effects of Cognitive Reserve on Age-Related Cognitive Decline
Alty, J., Bindoff, A. D., Stuart, K. E., Roccati, E., Collins, J. M., King, A. E., Summers, M. J., & Vickers, J. C. (2022) · Neurology · doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000201369 · Cited by 16
“Cognitive reserve theory proposes that in people with higher cognitive reserve, the onset of cognitive decline is delayed until time points closer to dementia diagnosis, but once decline begins, it is rapid because pathology is more advanced.(46,47) Our results suggest that females’ rate of age-related cognitive decli…”
Liu, X., TYLER, L. K., Cam‐CAN, Davis, S. W., Rowe, J. B., & Tsvetanov, K. A. (2023) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2023.06.001 · Cited by 17
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“Education could also protect cognition by enabling the absorption of age-related neuropathological changes, resulting in no or minimal brain alterations and preserved cognition (brain maintenance hypothesis) [19, 20].”
BackgroundTowards a neurodevelopmental cognitive perspective of temporal processing
Buzi, G., Eustache, F., Droit‐Volet, S., Desaunay, P., & Hinault, T. (2024) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-024-06641-4 · Cited by 21
When age tips the balance: A dual mechanism affecting hemispheric specialization for language
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“Consequently, the changes do not support the hypothesis of a compensatory phenomenon ( Cabeza et al., 2018), preserving language performance with age.”
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Detecting the Inverted-U in fMRI Studies of Schizophrenia: A Comparison of Three Analysis Methods
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“Changes in PFC activity in both schizophrenia and aging research are sometimes interpreted as evidence of compensatory activation (Cabeza et al., 2018; Manoach et al., 1999).”
BackgroundFunctional coupling between CA3 and laterobasal amygdala supports schema dependent memory formation
Yousuf, M., Packard, P. A., Fuentemilla, L., & Bunzeck, N. (2021) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118563 · Cited by 13
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“Without identifying what may be compensated for and establishing an association between increased FC and behavioral outcomes, we can only speculate on whether our results potentially reflect a compensatory mechanism (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundHormone-sleep interactions predict cerebellar connectivity and behavior in aging females
Ballard, H. K., Jackson, T. B., Hicks, T. H., Cox, S. J., Symm, A. C., Maldonado, T., & Bernard, J. A. (2022) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106034 · Cited by 14
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“As preserved cognitive functions are often associated with remodeling of brain activation patterns in older humans (Cabeza et al., 2018; Grady, 2012), we hypothesized that long-term olfactory enrichment drives changes in brain activation levels or/and functional connectivity that could contribute…”
Examination of the development and aging of brain deactivation using a unimanual motor task
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Homeostasis of a representational map in the neocortex
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“Surprisingly, however, cognitive functions remain remarkably robust during healthy aging and even in advanced prodromal neuro-degenerative stages, until a tipping point is reached 17,18 .”
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Self-citationNeural signature of everyday function in older adults at-risk of cognitive impairment
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“Most widely recognized is brain atrophy (the loss of tissue volume), which has been associated with a decline in cognitive function (Cabeza et al., 2018; Grajauskas et al., 2019).”
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Adams, J. N., Chappel-Farley, M. G., Yaros, J. L., Taylor, L., Harris, A. L., Mikhail, A., McMillan, L. C., Keator, D. B., & Yassa, M. A. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-40092-x · Cited by 14
“…at the full-network level, but did observe strong associations between higher graph metrics and better memory performance specifically in Aβ+ older adults, our pattern of results better support a resilience or reserve mechanism for functional brain networks than a compensatory mechanism 4,5 .”
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“43 These partly divergent effects of fALFF associated with Alzheimer’s disease might be explained by compensatory effects to maintain an adequate level of cognitive performance 43 and could be a functional hallmark of neural aging 44 that needs further attention.”
BackgroundTella, S. D., Isernia, S., Cabinio, M., Rossetto, F., Borgnis, F., Pagliari, C., Cazzoli, M., Navarro, J., Silveri, M. C., & Baglio, F. (2023) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-023-00829-8 · Cited by 12
“The impact of age on DLPFC is well recognized both in structure and function changes (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I. M., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., Lindenberger, U., Nyberg, L., Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Rugg, M. D., Steffener, J., & Rajah, M. N.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal (CA)
- Baycrest Hospital (CA)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Umeå University (SE)
- The University of Texas at Dallas (US)
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Cabeza, Roberto
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2018-10-10
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 701-710
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- PMC
- PMC6472256
- OpenAlex
- W2896204498
- Cited by
- 1,298
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 235 · 2025: 181 · 2024: 168 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 168 · 2020: 123 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 14.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (acceptedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- National Institute on Aging (RF1AG039103, RF1AG006265)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- cognitive aging, cognitive reserve, cognitive compensation, cognitive maintenance, dementia, brain aging, functional connectivity, terminology definitions
- MeSH terms
- Cognitive Aging, Cognitive Neuroscience, Healthy Aging, Brain, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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