The DOI matches its Crossref record; 123 of the 123 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 39 of the 74 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive ageing research examines the cognitive abilities that are preserved and/or those that decline with advanced age. There is great individual variability in cognitive ageing trajectories. Some older adults show little decline in cognitive ability compared with young adults and are thus termed 'optimally ageing'. By contrast, others exhibit substantial cognitive decline and may develop dementia. Human neuroimaging research has led to a number of important advances in our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying these two outcomes. However, interpreting the age-related changes and differences in brain structure, activation and functional connectivity that this research reveals is an ongoing challenge. Ambiguous terminology is a major source of difficulty in this venture. Three terms in particular - compensation, maintenance and reserve - have been used in a number of different ways, and researchers continue to disagree about the kinds of evidence or patterns of results that are required to interpret findings related to these concepts. As such inconsistencies can impede progress in both theoretical and empirical research, here, we aim to clarify and propose consensual definitions of these terms.
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Claims the paper makes
54 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 Couldn’t confirm · 11 Partly supported · 8 No basis given · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Not supported · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“However, it has been observed that when adults with high levels of reserve, as indicated by one or more reserve proxies, do eventually display cognitive decline, they do so at a rapid rate 69.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [69] Reed, B. R. et al. Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain 133, 2196–2209 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Hypothesis 4 results report that higher baseline reserve predicted slower, not faster, decline in executive function. The Discussion likewise says higher reserve was associated with less decline. The paper does not report a separate analysis of decline after its onset that would support the citing sentence's qualification. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In addition, it is likely that proxy measures of reserve may engage different neural mechanisms, each important for a different aspect reserve, such neural capacity (the total amount of neural resources available for cognition) or neural efficiency (using less neural resources—often operationalized as neural activity—to perform a cognitive task).54,56”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion considers shared and domain-specific mechanisms of age-related cognitive decline, but does not discuss proxy measures of reserve or distinguish neural capacity from neural efficiency. Searches for those terms and for cognitive-reserve proxies found no passage addressing the attributed claim; the Conclusions also say the behavioral evidence cannot establish the nature of the underlying factors. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
- Partly supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not specified) distinguishes reserve capacity in a threshold model from more efficient use of brain networks in an active model. It also identifies education as a reserve proxy, but does not say that different proxy measures engage different neural mechanisms or correspond to different aspects of reserve. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Diffusion MRI methods have shown age-related changes in white matter connectivity between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions, and within posterior sensory cortices.25–27”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [25] Musiek, E. S. & Holtzman, D. M. Mechanisms linking circadian clocks, sleep, and neurodegeneration. Science 354, 1004–1008 (2016). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Sleep and Neurodegeneration section discusses sleep, synaptic function, and medial prefrontal amyloid pathology, while the Circadian function and neurodegeneration section discusses age-related circadian changes. Neither addresses diffusion MRI or the specified age-related white matter connectivity changes. Searches for diffusion MRI and for connectivity in posterior sensory cortices found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Could not verifycites [26] Hullinger, R. & Puglielli, L. Molecular and cellular aspects of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease. Behav. Brain Res. 322, 191–205 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction and §5.1 discuss age-related brain and synaptic changes, but not diffusion MRI findings about the specified cortical connections. Searches for diffusion MRI, white matter, and prefrontal-to-posterior or posterior sensory connectivity found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Partly supportedcites [27] Mattson, M. P. & Arumugam, T. V. Hallmarks of brain aging: adaptive and pathological modification by metabolic states. Cell Metab. 27, 1176–1199 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The 'Aberrant Neuronal Network Activity' section says white matter integrity is compromised during normal aging and describes age-related changes in functional connectivity. It does not say that diffusion MRI showed changes specifically between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions or within posterior sensory cortices. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The development of expertise is associated with the presence of richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, which can attenuate age-related decline in the domain of expertise.54,65–67”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract reports age-related cognitive decline, and the Discussion notes that some variation in decline is domain-specific. Neither passage addresses whether expertise produces richer conceptual representations or attenuates decline in an expert domain. Searches for expertise and domain-specific protection found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [65] Alladi, S. et al. Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology 81, 1938–1944 (2013). source
- Partly supportedcites [66] Anthony, M. & Lin, F. A. Systematic review for functional neuroimaging studies of cognitive reserve across the cognitive aging spectrum. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx125 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not available) says cognitive reserve may help people tolerate or compensate for the effects of aging and discusses delaying cognitive decline. It does not address expertise, richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, or protection specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Partly supportedcites [67] Reed, B. R. et al. Cognitive activities during adulthood are more important than education in building reserve. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17, 615–624 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) links midlife cognitive activity to greater semantic-memory reserve and suggests that abilities may be maintained to different degrees in the face of dementia. It does not examine expertise or say that developing expertise produces richer, more differentiated conceptual representations; nor does it demonstrate reduced age-related decline specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.79)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“A good example of a factor that promotes reserve is education, which improves neural resources during childhood and young adulthood, possibly by enhancing synaptic density 50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses formal education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not as a means of improving neural resources. A search of our copy for neural resources, cognitive reserve, and synaptic density found no passage addressing the claimed mechanism during childhood or young adulthood. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For instance, one study found that greater cognitive reserve, as measured using IQ and education-occupation as proxies, was associated with lower activity during cognitive processing, suggesting more effective use of cerebral networks.30”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [30] Sampedro-Piquero, P., Alvarez-Suarez, P. & Begega, A. Coping with stress during aging: the importance of a resilient brain. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 16, 284–296 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Effects on Neurobiological Resilient Mechanisms” (page unavailable), the paper reports lower metabolic activity in aged, enriched rats performing a spatial-learning task. It does not link that activity to cognitive reserve measured by IQ or education–occupation, and it proposes better stress coping rather than more effective use of cerebral networks. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Also, cross-sectional designs can be contaminated by birth cohort effects, including inter-generational IQ increases (the ‘Flynn Effect’).43,44”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [43] Giorgio, A. et al. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage 51, 943–951 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) says the study’s cross-sectional design compares different cohorts across age groups and may be less sensitive to lifespan brain changes than a longitudinal design. This supports the general concern about cohort effects, but our copy does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [44] Madden, D. J. et al. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive control. Neuroimage 52, 643–657 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion’s Limitations section says cross-sectional age-group differences reflect cohort differences as well as chronological age. It does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Genetic55 and environmental factors,54,56 including longer education,32 greater physical activity,57 active participation in demanding leisure activities58 and bilingualism59,60 impact individual differences in reserve.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [55] Stern, Y., Gazes, Y., Razlighi, Q., Steffener, J. & Habeck, C. A task-invariant cognitive reserve network. Neuroimage 178, 36–45 (2018). source
The Introduction states that educational attainment, exercise, and leisure activities may account for individual differences in cognitive reserve. This supports the environmental-factors point to which this source is cited; the sentence separately cites other sources for genetics and bilingualism. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Partly supportedcites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) suggests that lifestyle and common genetic variation may contribute to individual differences in rates of cognitive decline. It does not establish that these factors affect individual differences in reserve. The specific examples in the sentence have separate citations and are not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). source
The citation to this paper is attached to longer education, not to the other factors in the sentence. The Abstract links education to reserve and reports that higher education correlated with a hippocampal microstructural measure; the Introduction likewise describes education-dependent differences in brain structure and function. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [32] Morgan, D. G. The dopamine and serotonin systems during aging in human and rodent brain. A brief review. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 11, 153–157 (1987). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Possibly, at some level, the burden of pathology becomes great enough to overcome this protective mechanism, resulting in rapid cognitive decline31,53.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [31] Rosario, E. R., Chang, L., Head, E. H., Stanczyk, F. Z. & Pike, C. J. Brain levels of sex steroid hormones in men and women during normal aging and in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 604–613 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion describes a possible protective role for sex hormones against Alzheimer’s pathology, but does not discuss cognitive reserve, a pathology threshold that overcomes it, or rapid cognitive decline. Searches for reserve and pathology-threshold language found no passage addressing that proposed sequence. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [53] Raz, N. et al. Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb. Cortex 15, 1676–1689 (2005). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion says the study found no support for the brain reserve hypothesis, while noting that its cognitive measures were too narrow to settle the question. It discusses pathology and brain shrinkage, but does not address whether a threshold of pathology overcomes reserve and causes rapid cognitive decline (searched: pathology burden, reserve, protective mechanism, rapid cognitive decline). (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“One example of how increased capacity is associated with a proxy measure of reserve is the aforementioned effect of education on synaptic density.50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not its effect on synaptic density. Searches for synaptic density, neural capacity, and reserve found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed association. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
- It may state two separate claims as one. 31
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have shown that normal aging is associated with gray matter volume reductions and functional alterations in several regions critical for higher cognitive function: prefrontal, medial temporal and parietal cortices.21–24”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [21] Roy, A. K. et al. Impacts of transcriptional regulation on aging and senescence. Ageing Res. Rev. 1, 367–380 (2002). source
- Could not verifycites [22] Foster, T. C. Role of estrogen receptor alpha and beta expression and signaling on cognitive function during aging. Hippocampus 22, 656–669 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper’s section on ERα and ERβ expression and E2-induced synaptogenesis discusses age-related synaptic and memory changes, not MRI findings. Searches for gray-matter volume, MRI, and the specified cortical regions found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed regional volume reductions and functional alterations. (LLM, conf=0.75)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] Papenberg, G., Salami, A., Persson, J., Lindenberger, U. & Backman, L. Genetics and functional imaging: effects of APOE, BDNF, COMT, and KIBRA in aging. Neuropsychol Rev. 25, 47–62 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 (Apoptosis; page unavailable) discusses possible neuronal loss with aging, but does not report MRI findings, gray matter volume reductions, or functional changes in the named cortices. Searches for those cortical regions and for MRI and gray matter volume found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that young adults may also upregulate activity in response to increased task demands, but that the demand threshold for upregulation may be higher in young, compared to older adults24,36.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 discusses apoptosis and neuronal compensation after cell loss; Figure 1 discusses thresholds at which tissue health becomes compromised. Neither addresses activity upregulation in response to task demands or compares the demand thresholds of young and older adults (searched for task demands and cognitive activity upregulation). Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased fMRI activity in people with mild cognitive impairment or at risk of Alzheimer’s disease, but does not compare young and older adults’ responses to increasing task demands. Searches for young adults, task difficulty, and demand thresholds found no passage addressing the proposed difference in upregulation thresholds. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, given the link between exercise and white-matter integrity,70 it is possible that individuals who exercise regularly maintain white-matter integrity better than other aspects of the brain.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [70] Bernardi, G. et al. How skill expertise shapes the brain functional architecture: an fMRI study of visuo-spatial and motor processing in professional racing-car and naive drivers. PLOS ONE 8, e77764 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the asserted link between exercise and white-matter integrity. The Conclusions discuss psycho-physical training and functional brain efficiency, while the Methods mention white matter only as a signal used in fMRI processing; neither addresses white-matter integrity in people who exercise regularly (page numbers unavailable). Searched for white-matter integrity, exercise, and physical training. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Linking compensation to successful performance (Box 1) helps distinguish compensation from activation differences due to inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology (Box 2)80.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [80] Gorbach, T. et al. Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiol. Aging 51, 167–176 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (§3.3) link hippocampal change with episodic-memory change, and the Discussion (§4) relates preserved memory to brain maintenance. Neither addresses whether linking compensation to successful performance distinguishes it from inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology. Searches for those terms and for activation differences found no relevant passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Although greater activity in older adults may merely reflect inefficiency,82 it is difficult to interpret greater activity as inefficient when it correlates positively with cognitive performance, which is one of our requirements for applying the term compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [82] Pudas, S. et al. Brain characteristics of individuals resisting age-related cognitive decline over two decades. J. Neurosci. 33, 8668–8677 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the suggestion that greater activity in older adults may reflect inefficiency, not to the citing authors’ subsequent argument about performance correlations. The Introduction and Discussion discuss greater activation as possible compensation, neural capacity, or a longstanding individual difference, but do not address inefficiency. Searches for “inefficiency” and “inefficient neural activity” found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similar to the concept of reserve, the mechanisms contributing to maintenance are also likely to have both genetic77 and environmental origins, with the latter including factors such as diet, exercise, and cognitive and social engagement33,57,78.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [77] Vaci, N., Gula, B. & Bilalic, M. Is age really cruel to experts? Compensatory effects of activity. Psychol. Aging 30, 740–754 (2015). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Stern, Y. Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 20, 112–117 (2006). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In MEASURES OF RESERVE (p. 2), Stern discusses genetic and environmental influences on reserve and says that exercise and stimulating environments promote neurogenesis in animals. EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVIDENCE FOR CR (p. 2) links cognitive and social activities with lower dementia risk. The paper does not address diet or establish these factors as mechanisms of maintenance, rather than reserve. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [78] Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. & Tsai, W. Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation. Neurology 1, 1942–1947 (1999). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Several studies36,38–41 have found that, consistent with reduced neural resources, older adults show a greater increase in activity, a lower asymptote, and an earlier decline than younger adults”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased activation in people at risk for Alzheimer’s disease, followed by loss of activation as cognitive impairment worsens; it does not compare activation patterns in older and younger adults. Searches for “asymptote” and age-related activation under increasing task demand found no passage addressing the claimed lower asymptote or earlier decline. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] Tromp, D., Dufour, A., Lithfous, S., Pebayle, T. & Despres, O. Episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer disease: insights from imaging and behavioral studies. Ageing Res. Rev. 24, 232–262 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [39] Walhovd, K. B. et al. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 916–932 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports age-related differences in brain volume, including accelerating white-matter volume loss after middle age. It does not address the claimed pattern of neural activity—a greater increase, lower asymptote, and earlier decline in older adults (searched: activity, neural resources, and functional activation). (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] Rajah, M. N., Maillet, D. & Grady, C. L. in The Wiley Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory (eds Addis, D., Barense, M. & Duarte, A.) 347–361 (Wiley Publishers, New York, 2015). source
- Partly supportedcites [41] Nyberg, L. et al. Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 22682–22686 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion report reduced frontal activity as older adults were followed over time, which supports an age-related reduction in recruitment. They do not establish the claimed greater increase in activity, lower asymptote, or earlier decline relative to younger adults; the Discussion cautions that cross-sectional signs of increased activity reflected a selected elderly sample. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
- Could not verify
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The time-scale of maintenance processes likely varies depending on the neural level at which it takes place (molecules, cells or systems).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reserve is hypothesized to accumulate before neural resources demonstrate age-related decreases, over a period of years.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that if reserve is defined merely as “the factor that individuals with greater reserve have,” and then this factor is used to explain why some individuals have greater reserve, the argument is clearly circular.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to emphasize that the mechanisms of reserve, maintenance, and compensation are not static but dynamic and modifiable, and they are likely not only responsible for modifying behavior, but are in turn modified by such changes.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maintenance occurs throughout the lifespan but may become more critical in old age, as neural deterioration becomes more severe.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Presumably reserve accumulates most during childhood and young adulthood, but it may also build up in older age,9”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Rajah, M. N. & D’Esposito, M. Region-specific changes in prefrontal function with age: a review of PET and fMRI studies on working and episodic memory. Brain 128, 1964–1983 (2005). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, whereas older participants are typically recruited only from the sub-set of people who aged successfully, young adult samples are more heterogeneous.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although they have their own limitations,46 longitudinal designs avoid these problems and can consistently demonstrate large individual differences in rates of age-related decline.47,48”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Lindenberger, U. Human cognitive aging: corriger la fortune? Science 346, 572–578 (2014). source
- Not matchedcites [47] World Health Organisation. World Report on Ageing and Health (eds Beard, J., Officer, A. & Cassels, A.) (WHO, Luxembourg, 2015).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Habib, R., Nyberg, L. & Nilsson, L. G. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the Betula study. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 14, 257–273 (2007). source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ideal case, accumulated reserve is enough to completely offset age-related neural decline, whereas in the typical case, it only attenuates this decline.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the optimal case, repair processes fully counteract decline. In the typical scenario, however, repair processes do not completely offset neural deterioration, leading to a gradual process of age-related neural deterioration.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, some individuals may be relatively spared from detrimental brain changes in the first place resulting in a high likelihood of displaying maintenance regardless of the capacity for repair.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individual differences reflecting compensation, in contrast, might be expected to differ according to the nature of the cognitive challenge, and to correlate more with individual differences in task performance than with proxy measures of reserve”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences related to reserve might be expected to manifest as ‘trait-like’ effects that are evident across a range of different cognitive domains, and to correlate with independent proxies of reserve, such as IQ or educational level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve and maintenance (FIGS. 1–B/C), processes of age-related ‘neural decline’ (such as brain atrophy, synaptic loss, white-matter degradation, etc.) are countered by processes of ‘neural enhancement,’ that is, the creation, replenishment, and repair of neural resources (brain anatomy and physiology mediating cognitive processes).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, over the years, these terms have been used inconsistently, creating confusion and slowing progress.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas hippocampal maintenance has been associated with episodic memory maintenance, the maintenance of other brain regions is likely to be associated with the preservation of other cognitive abilities33.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, PFC maintenance could be associated with the maintenance of cognitive control.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the context of aging, it is more appropriate to emphasize the loss in neural resources.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a point on which our view departs from some uses of the term compensation in the literature, where the term is often applied to any age-related increase in brain activity, or to the recruitment of additional brain regions in older but not young adults, regardless of relationship with performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, although the concepts of reserve and maintenance are similar, we view them as complementary perspectives on how environmental and biological factors influence brain aging and cognition.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve, these factors cumulative influence neural capacity and neural efficiency (and other mechanisms not yet identified due to limits of technology). In the case of maintenance, these factors influence neural mechanisms of repair and plasticity (and others not yet identified).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The important point is that the process selected by older adults is also available to young adults, but less likely to be the one that supports their performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, older adults may show activation in a different region than young adults, but this region could be a different component of the same functional network recruited by younger adults, suggesting compensation by upregulation rather than selection.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We posit that these forms of compensation are not mutually exclusive such that one or more may co-occur within or across individuals.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by upregulation refers to the enhancement of cognitive performance by boosting a neural process in response to task demands.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We acknowledge that reserve has an impact on later maintenance, and vice versa, as the accumulated reserve must be maintained.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is theoretically possible that the extent to which different maintenance mechanisms operate depends on initial brain measures.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our view, without a link to performance, these findings should be simply described as age-related differences (increases or decreases) in activity, and not as compensatory activity.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The closest analogy to this type of compensation would be the development of new neural mechanisms following brain damage.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This gap may be due to an age-related reduction in neural resources (e.g., brain atrophy, reduced blood flow, neurotransmitter deficits, reduced neural specificity, etc.), due to an increase in task demands, or both.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reserve is about enhancing and augmenting resources, whereas maintenance is about their up-keep.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by selection occurs when older adults recruit neural circuitry associated with cognitive processes that are available to but not engaged by young adults under the same objective task conditions.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, evidence should be available that the enhanced activation in older adults is related to a beneficial effect on cognitive performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Finally, compensation by reorganization occurs when older adults use an alternative neural mechanism to respond to aging-induced losses that is not available to younger individuals76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
““brain maintainers” include individuals who start with above-average brain measures in early adulthood (e.g., larger hippocampus) and maintain these high levels into older age, as well as individuals who start below average (e.g., smaller hippocampus) and maintaining functioning at that lower level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found it necessary to distinguish among three different mechanisms or forms of compensation (all incorporating the two criteria above): upregulation, selection, and recruitment of additional processes (see FIG 3).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Greater brain activity or connectivity is sometimes interpreted as being beneficial to older adults, without any additional supporting evidence.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation is temporally linked to variations in cognitive demands and can occur rapidly, in a matter of seconds.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In summary, we see maintenance as a dynamic process that engages neural mechanisms of cellular repair and may overlap to a large degree with mechanisms of brain plasticity in adulthood76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, older adults may engage a less effective but also a less demanding process, whereas younger adults prefer a more effective but more demanding one.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, given the close interaction between different brain structures and processes, it is also possible to talk about general brain maintenance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although these alternative circuits may be less effective than the original ones, their recruitment may still benefit performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, we believe that two basic criteria must be fulfilled in order to attribute greater activity/connectivity in older adults to compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that maintenance is operationalized as a relative lack of decline in one or more neural measures, and not in absolute terms”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In functional neuroimaging studies, compensation is often used to describe a situation in which brain activity, or functional connectivity, is greater, or more widespread, in older adults than in younger adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although we have discussed reserve, maintenance, and compensation in separate sections, they can operate concurrently and affect each other.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, individuals with neurological disease or disorder may compensate for their disorder-related deficit in ways similar to those described here for healthy older adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that although we compared reorganization due to aging and due to brain damage, they differ in several ways, including the fact that the time-course of aging is slow whereas the course of brain injury is fast.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, when considering the potential effects of cognitive training on promoting reserve, one has to consider whether age-related deficits in maintenance will render these effects less effective.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, we note that despite our focus on healthy aging, the concepts we have discussed also can be applied in other domains, including child development, acute brain injury, neurodegeneration, and psychiatric illness”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Mechanisms, understood as putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis, such as genetic, cellular, and system levels.
“We assume that mechanisms, which refer to putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis (genetic, cellular, system, etc.).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Because of age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed them when younger.
“we assume that due to age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed their younger selves.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
“It is assumed that the asymptote reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects the breakdown in cognitive performance when these resources are exceeded.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reserve cannot be measured directly.
“Given that it is not possible to measure reserve directly, most studies of reserve have focused on a particular proxy and how it relates to the functioning brain.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most cognitive aging research so far has used samples composed largely of healthy, well-educated, high-functioning older adults who are mostly Caucasian.
“We also note with caution that most studies of cognitive aging to date have been limited to testing samples of high functioning, highly educated, and mostly Caucasian healthy older adults.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similar protective effects of education have been observed in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia50,51, indicating some commonality with other neurodegenerative conditions.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We caution that neurocognitive reserve is a complex construct that is operationalized using proxies such as education, but it cannot be directly measured51.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These findings would be consistent with education promoting neurocognitive reserve51, increasing resilience to neuronal degeneration resulting from MS injury and aging.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Previous research has indicated that, compared with abstract verbal cues, photographs as concrete visual materials are more likely to stimulate memory retrieval and facilitate detailed event recall and narrative development (Benoit et al., 2015;Petrelli & Whittaker, 2010).”
From Designing for Reminiscence in Digital Photo Systems for Older Adults: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as Cabeza et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citations
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Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 1,202
Zhou, F., Zhang, Q., Zheng, X., Shi, F., Ma, K., Ji, F., Meng, N., Li, R., Lv, J., & Li, Q. (2024) · Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry · doi:10.1021/acs.jafc.3c09815 · Cited by 13
Pongpipat, E. E., Kennedy, K. M., Foster, C. M., Boylan, M. A., & Rodrigue, K. M. (2020) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2020.0791 · Cited by 12
“…(i.e., coupling) between FPN and DMN regions may not be as important to n-back performance in the youngest or the oldest adults compared to adults in the middle to older age range, a period theorized to be crucial for brain maintenance and/or compensation mechanisms (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
Yang, W., Li, Z., Guo, A., Li, S., Yang, X., & Ren, Y. (2021) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2021.01.017 · Cited by 12
Birth Cohorts and Cognitive Reserve Influence Cognitive Performances in Older Adults
Turcotte, V., Initiative, A. D. N., Potvin, O., Dadar, M., Hudon, C., & Duchesne, S. (2021) · Journal of Alzheimer s Disease · doi:10.3233/jad-215044 · Cited by 15
RODRIGUES, S. L. D. S., da SILVA, J. M., de OLIVEIRA, M. C. C., de SANTANA, C. M. F., CARVALHO, K. M., & Barbosa, B. J. A. P. (2021) · Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0004-282x-anp-2020-0539 · Cited by 18
Gray, R., Sarampalis, A., Başkent, D., & Harding, E. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.806439 · Cited by 12
Agbangla, N. F., Audiffren, M. F., Pylouster, J., & Albinet, C. T. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12111462 · Cited by 14
Merenstein, J. L., Mullin, H. A., & Madden, D. J. (2023) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-022-02640-x · Cited by 13
“Age-related increases in frontoparietal activation may represent a compensatory recruitment of neural resources or a more general level of task difficulty and effort (Cabeza et al., 2018; Dennis & Cabeza, 2008; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; Reuter-Lorenz & Park, 2014).”
BackgroundChen, X., Tan, W., Cheng, Y., Huang, D., Liu, D., Zhang, J., Li, J., Liu, Z., Pan, Y., & Palaniyappan, L. K. (2023) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2023.115319 · Cited by 13
“(Cabeza et al., 2018), in the context of neural compensation, perform better than patients on language-related cognitive measures.”
BackgroundPenhale, S. H., Arif, Y., Schantell, M. D., Johnson, H. J., Willett, M. P., Okelberry, H. J., Meehan, C. E., Heinrichs‐Graham, E., & Wilson, T. W. (2024) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26591 · Cited by 13
“Based on the compensation-related utilization of neural circuits hypothesis (CRUNCH; Cabeza et al., 2018; Schneider-Garces et al., 2010), we also predicted that frontal and parietal cortices would exhibit strong interactions (i.e., functional connectivity), and that the efficiency of this network…”
BackgroundHow aging affects the premotor control of lower limb movements in simulated gait
Sacheli, L. M., Zapparoli, L., Bonandrini, R., et al. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.24919 · Cited by 12
“Importantly, to count as properly “compensatory,” these additional neural resources should show a linear relation with the individuals' level of performance (i.e., the higher an area is activated in older participants, the higher the performance should be, Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundFemale sex is strongly associated with cognitive impairment in HIV infection
Duarte, E. A. C., Benevides, M. L., Martins, A. L. P., et al. (2020) · Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1007/s10072-020-04705-x · Cited by 12
Stojan, R., Kaushal, N., Bock, O. L., Hudl, N., & Voelcker‐Rehage, C. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.686499 · Cited by 11
Hou, M., Horne, E. D., de Chastelaine, M., & Rugg, M. D. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.118918 · Cited by 11
Self-citationCabeza, R. E. L., Albert, M., Belleville, S., et al. (2018) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-018-0087-z · Cited by 12
Self-citationPrediction of brain age and cognitive age: quantifying brain and cognitive maintenance in agingPreprint
Anatürk, M., Kaufmann, T., Cole, J. H., et al. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gwqnt · Cited by 12
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“73”
Brain–body states as a link between cardiovascular and mental health
Villringer, A., Nikulin, V. V., & Gaebler, M. (2025) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2025.08.004 · Cited by 18
“…function during healthy aging include increasing arterial stiffness [67], characteristic patterns of brain atrophy [68], and long-term imbalance of the autonomic PNS [69], which likely underlie changes in interoceptive awareness [70], emotion regulation [71], and overall cognitive abilities [72].”
The effect of ageing on confrontation naming in healthy older adults: a three-level meta-analysis
Wen, H., & Dong, Y. (2023) · Journal of Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1080/20445911.2023.2184745 · Cited by 12
“Moreover, the level of education is also considered an indicator (proxy measure) of cognitive reserve (see Ardila et al., 2010; Arenaza-Urquijo et al., 2013; Cabeza et al., 2018; Capitani et al., 1996; Wilson et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMusical experience prior to traumatic exposure as a resilience factor: a conceptual analysis
Fraile, E., Gagnepain, P., Eustache, F., Groussard, M., & Platel, H. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1220489 · Cited by 15
New frontiers for the understanding of aging: the power and possibilities of studying the cerebellum
Bernard, J. A., McOwen, K., & Huynh, A. T. (2023) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2023.101311 · Cited by 11
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Loots, C. A. D. J., Price, G. J., Barbera, M., Neely, A. S., Gavelin, H. M., Lehtisalo, J., Ngandu, T., Solomon, A., Mangialasche, F., & Kivipelto, M. (2024) · Frontiers in Dementia · doi:10.3389/frdem.2024.1331741 · Cited by 11
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Self-citationTransforming Cognition and Human Society in the Digital Age
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Active lifestyle as a reflection of cognitive reserve: The Modified Cognitive Reserve Scale
Relander, K., Mäki, K., Soinne, L., et al. (2021) · Nordic Psychology · doi:10.1080/19012276.2021.1902846 · Cited by 11
Villa, A. R., Guerrero, E., Villa, A. M., et al. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph182010939 · Cited by 11
“These conditions may favor their sense of autonomy, independence, and functionality, and thus increase their cognitive reserve and decrease their risk of developing cognitive impairment [8,36].”
BackgroundYeung, M. K.-C., Lee, T., & Chan, A. S.-Y. (2021) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2021.108224 · Cited by 13
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“These results were, however, achieved at the cost of scan times Frontiers in Cellular Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 5 January 2022 | Volume 15 | Article 815552 of several hours, in an extreme case up to 235 h (Calabrese et al., 2015).”
BackgroundResultPrefrontal hyperactivation during dual-task walking related to apathy symptoms in older individuals
Talamonti, D., Dupuy, E. G., Boudaa, S., Vincent, T. L., Fraser, S., Nigam, A., Lesage, F., Belleville, S., Gagnon, C., & Bherer, L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266553 · Cited by 10
“Although compensation mechanisms are considered functional in healthy older adulthood, as they may indicate brain plasticity [46], hyperactivation in populations at risk of AD (e.”
BackgroundSelf-citationDoes cognitive aging follow an orchid and dandelion phenomenon?
Rodrigues, E. A., Christie, G. J., Farzan, F., & Moreno, S. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.986262 · Cited by 11
“Cognitive reserve capacity reflects the difference between age-related brain deterioration and observed clinical outcomes (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundCreativity, aging, context and culture: Reimagining creativity in everyday life in older adults
Adams‐Price, C. E., & Morse, L. W. (2024) · Possibility Studies & Society · doi:10.1177/27538699241235247 · Cited by 13
“Some possible explanations cognitive neuroscientists might talk about include connectivity, cognitive activation or cognitive reserves (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
Cognitive Genomics: Recent Advances and Current Challenges
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Changes in Speech-Related Brain Activity During Adaptation to Electro-Acoustic Hearing
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Age-related differences in decision-making process in the context of healthy aging
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“…mechanisms actively contribute toward modulating the association between pathophysiological and clinical profiles, for example, those proposed by the models of resilience, reserve and maintenance (Cabeza et al., 2018), or by more complex frameworks of cognitive aging (Reuter-Lorenz and Park, 2014).”
Santabárbara, J., Bueno‐Notivol, J., Lipnicki, D. M., de la Cámara, C., López‐Antón, R., Lobo, A., & Gracia‐García, P. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18041802 · Cited by 11
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Impact of cognitive reserve on dance intervention-induced changes in brain plasticity
Mitterová, K., Klobušiaková, P., Minsterová, A. Š., Kropáčová, S., Balážová, Z., Točík, J., Vaculíková, P., Skotáková, A., Grmela, R., & Rektorová, I. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-97323-2 · Cited by 14
The neural–vascular basis of age‐related processing speed decline
Zhao, Y., Liu, P., Turner, M. P., Abdelkarim, D., Lu, H., & Bart Rypma, A. (2021) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13845 · Cited by 11
Dynamical Modeling as a Tool for Inferring Causation
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“Moreover, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients with CR proxies can show more advanced AD-type neuropathology but comparable clinical severity of cognitive impairment than those without CR proxies [2,4].”
BackgroundFerrari-Díaz, M., Bravo-Chávez, R. I., Silva‐Pereyra, J., Fernández, T., García‐Peña, C., & Rodríguez-Camacho, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.921518 · Cited by 13
“Efforts have been made to investigate the factors that may reduce the impact of aging on both brain structure and function to better understand individual differences in cognitive abilities (Cabeza et al., 2018; Stern et al., 2019, 2020).”
BackgroundMontembeault, M., Miller, Z., Geraudie, A., Pressman, P., Slegers, A., Millanski, C., Licata, A. E., Ratnasiri, B. M., Mandelli, M. L., Henry, M. L., et al. (2023) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcad077 · Cited by 11
Cognitive ability in old age is predetermined by age 20 y
Park, D. C. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1821142116 · Cited by 11
Self-citationCabeza, R. E. L., Albert, M., Belleville, S., et al. (2018) · Nature reviews. Neuroscience · doi:10.1038/s41583-018-0086-0 · Cited by 11
Self-citationAn fMRI Study of the Brain Network Involved in Teeth Tapping in Elderly Adults
Kobayashi, T., Fukami, H., Ishikawa, E., Shibata, K., Kubota, M., Kondo, H., & Sahara, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2020.00032 · Cited by 11
“For example, a lack of efficiency in the use of neural resources or reduction in the selectivity of responses (which is known as dedifferentiation) can sometimes be observed with poorer performance (over-recruitment; for reviews, see Grady, 2012; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundYao, Z., & Hsieh, S. (2021) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab382 · Cited by 12
“…older adults while performing tasks (Davis et al. 2008; Reuter-Lorenz and Cappell 2008; Park and Reuter-Lorenz 2009; Reuter-Lorenz and Park 2014; Nashiro et al. 2018; Qin and Basak 2020) might reflect compensatory brain activity to delay cognitive decline in older participants (Cabeza et al. 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialGreco-Vuilloud, J., Midroit, M., Terrier, C., Forest, J., Sacquet, J., Mandairon, N., Didier, A., & Richard, M. B. (2022) · Neurobiology of Aging · doi:10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.03.003 · Cited by 10
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“…WM, and superior longitudinal fasciculus), and early-myelinating regions (posterior limb of the internal capsule and the cerebral peduncles), as supported by previous studies (Bartzokis, 2004; Brickman et al., 2012; Buyanova and Arsalidou, 2021; Cabeza et al., 2018; Kinney and Volpe, 2018).”
Sleep in Normal Aging, Alzheimer's Disease, and Mild Cognitive Impairment
Gagnon, J., Lafrenière, A., Rauchs, G., Petit, D., & Carrier, J. (2019) · Handbook of behavioral neuroscience · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-813743-7.00045-1 · Cited by 13
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Right fronto-parietal networks mediate the neurocognitive benefits of enriched environments
Brosnan, M. B., Shalev, N., Ramduny, J., Sotiropoulos, S. N., & Chechlacz, M. (2022) · Brain Communications · doi:10.1093/braincomms/fcac080 · Cited by 11
“Correspondingly, it has been proposed that enriched, cognitively engaging environments across a lifetime contribute to optimal brain health and to prevent or at least delay the onset of dementia later in life (for review see Nelson et al., 2021; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBrain Macro-Structural Alterations in Aging Rats: A Longitudinal Lifetime Approach
Gull, S., Gaser, C., Herrmann, K., Urbach, A., Boehme, M., Afzal, S., Reichenbach, J. R., Witte, O. W., & Schmidt, S. (2023) · Cells · doi:10.3390/cells12030432 · Cited by 12
“In order to reach this goal, there is an urgent need for comprehensive information about functional and structural changes in the brain over the entire lifespan [6].”
BackgroundLi, F., Miao, M., Li, N., Zhou, J., Sun, M., & Zhang, J. (2023) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2023.1234018 · Cited by 10
“This makes the brain tolerant to several structural or functional brain cell deficits and delays the progression of senile brain atrophy (Cabeza et al., 2018; Lövdén et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBrosnan, M. B., O'Neill, M., Loughnane, G. M., Pearce, D. J., Fleming, B., Zhou, S.-H., Chong, T. T. ‐., Nobre, A. C., O’Connell, R. G., & Bellgrove, M. A. (2023) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.2260-21.2023 · Cited by 10
Adaptation for growth as a common goal throughout the lifespan: Why and how
Wu, R., & Strickland-Hughes, C. M. (2019) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/bs.plm.2019.07.005 · Cited by 11
Stability of memory SuperAgers over 3 years
Červenková, M., Heissler, R., & Kopeček, M. (2019) · PsyCh Journal · doi:10.1002/pchj.313 · Cited by 10
Design and overview of the Origins of Alzheimer’s Disease Across the Life course (ORACLE) study
Lamballais, S., Adank, M. C., Hussainali, R. F., Schalekamp–Timmermans, S., Vernooij, M. W., Luik, A. I., Steegers, E. A. P., & Ikram, M. A. (2020) · European Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1007/s10654-020-00696-3 · Cited by 11
Inter- and Intra-Hemispheric Age-Related Remodeling in Visuo-Spatial Working Memory
Tagliabue, C. F., Varesio, G., & Mazza, V. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.807907 · Cited by 11
Redondo‐Camós, M., Cattaneo, G., Perellón‐Alfonso, R., Alviarez‐Schulze, V., Morris, T. P., Sánchez, J. S., España‐Irla, G., Delgado‐Gallén, S., Pachón‐García, C., Albu, S., et al. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.813444 · Cited by 10
“If interpreted in the framework of theoretical models of cognitive aging, this enhancement may be due to the promotion of compensatory mechanisms by rTMS (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
MethodKvist, A. J., Peterson, D. S., Bezuidenhout, L., Johansson, H., Albrecht, F., Ekman, U., Conradsson, D. M., & Franzén, E. (2026) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01864-w · Cited by 10
“…of over activation in older adults compared to younger adults during cognitive and motor tasks, where compensation by upregulation or reorganization [11] of activity from automatic circuits to volitional prefrontal circuits during normal walking might explain increased dual-task interference.”
Has, A. C., Nolte, G., Pöttgen, J., Engel, A. K., Heesen, C., Gold, S. M., & Stellmann, J. (2022) · Journal of Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1002/jnr.25135 · Cited by 9
Zhuang, R., Zhu, S., Sui, Y., Zhou, M., Yang, T., Wang, C., Zhang, T., Wang, J., Kan, C., Shen, Y., et al. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12111479 · Cited by 9
“[44] also observed a decrease in SMA in the OG.”
BackgroundLatella, D., Formica, C., Ielo, A., Grioli, P., Marra, A., Costanzo, D., Merlo, M., Pappalardo, S. M., Corallo, F., Marino, S., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1402894 · Cited by 10
“The lack of a universally accepted approach to the objective identification of cognitive impairment and a wide range of conceptual and diagnostic approaches to MCI have led to highly variable prevalence rates from 1 to 30% (Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundVergani, A. A., Mazzeo, S., Moschini, V., Burali, R., Lassi, M., Amato, L. G., Carpaneto, J., Salvestrini, G., Fabbiani, C., Giacomucci, G., et al. (2025) · NeuroImage Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2025.103760 · Cited by 11
“The CR is related to the concept of brain efficiency (Stern et al., 2003; Cabeza et al., 2018; Gu et al., 2018), i.e., lower utilization of cortical activity for getting performance, in fact its contrary (cid:0) neural inefficiency (cid:0) has been associated with low CR (Habeck et al., 2003;…”
Aging Impacts Basic Auditory and Timing Processes
Criscuolo, A., Schwartze, M., Bonetti, L., & Kotz, S. A. (2025) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.70031 · Cited by 15
Fischer, L., Adams, J. N., Molloy, E. N., Vockert, N., Tremblay‐Mercier, J., Remz, J., Binette, A. P., Villeneuve, S., & Maaß, A. (2025) · Alzheimer s Research & Therapy · doi:10.1186/s13195-025-01742-6 · Cited by 11
“…findings do not support the hypothesis that hyperconnectivity between the anterior hippocampus and the superior precuneus is beneficial or compensatory in the presence of AD risk as it was not related positively but rather negatively to future change in memory performance in APOE4 carriers [105].”
Bonetti, L., Olsen, E. R., Carlomagno, F., Serra, E., Szabó, S. A., Klarlund, M., Andersen, M. H., Frausing, L., Vuust, P., Brattico, E., et al. (2025) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.13124 · Cited by 13
Age-related modulation of EEG time-frequency responses in prospective memory retrieval
Laera, G., Arcara, G., Gajewski, P. D., Kliegel, M., & Hering, A. (2021) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.107818 · Cited by 9
Tella, S. D., Cabinio, M., Isernia, S., Blasi, V., Rossetto, F., Saibene, F. L., Alberoni, M., Silveri, M. C., Sorbi, S., Clerici, M., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.735508 · Cited by 10
Wei, X., Shen, Q., Litvan, I., Huang, M., Lee, R. R., & Harrington, D. L. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.853029 · Cited by 10
Wagner, M., & Grodstein, F. (2022) · Age and Ageing · doi:10.1093/ageing/afac102 · Cited by 12
Still Wanting to Win: Reward System Stability in Healthy Aging
Opitz, L., Wagner, F., Rogenz, J., Maas, J., Schmidt, A., Brodoehl, S., & Klingner, C. M. (2022) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2022.863580 · Cited by 11
Effects of aging on neural processing during an active listening task
Kuruvilla-Mathew, A., Thorne, P., & Purdy, S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273304 · Cited by 9
The effects of aging and perceived loneliness on lexical ambiguity resolution
Zhou, N., Huang, C., Cai, Q., Tzeng, O. J. L., & Huang, H.-W. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.978616 · Cited by 9
“It was surprising that education did not significantly predict general word recognition performance or sublexical ambiguity resolution, despite it being reported as a protector against the negative effects of aging (Stern, 2009; Cabeza et al., 2018; Huang and Huang, 2019) and a good predictor of various language funct…”
BackgroundResting State Network Segregation Modulates Age-Related Differences in Language Production
Zhang, H., & Diaz, M. T. (2023) · Neurobiology of Language · doi:10.1162/nol_a_00106 · Cited by 9
“The more focal approach suggests that higher betweennetwork connectivity, at least between language and executive regions, may have a compensatory function (e.g., Cabeza et al., 2018; Reuter-Lorenz & Cappell, 2008).”
BackgroundInfluentialTorenvliet, C., Groenman, A. P., van Rentergem, J. A. A., Radhoe, T. A., & Geurts, H. M. (2024) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2024.115759 · Cited by 9
“Given what is known on cognitive reserve (e.g., Cabeza et al., 2018), the current sample might disregard those most vulnerable to cognitive decline.”
Impact of cognitive reserve on bipolar disorder: a systematic review
Matsumoto, K., & Hamatani, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1341991 · Cited by 13
Single-value brain activity scores reflect both severity and risk across the Alzheimer’s continuum
Soch, J., Richter, A., Kizilirmak, J. M., Schütze, H., Ziegler, G., Altenstein, S., Brosseron, F., Dechent, P., Fließbach, K., Freiesleben, S. D., et al. (2024) · Brain · doi:10.1093/brain/awae149 · Cited by 8
Hellerstedt, R., Moccia, A., Brunskill, C. M., Bowman, H., & Bergström, Z. M. (2021) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2021.03.015 · Cited by 9
How Do We Motorically Resonate in Aging? A Compensatory Role of Prefrontal Cortex
Tella, S. D., Blasi, V., Cabinio, M., Bergsland, N., Buccino, G., & Baglio, F. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.694676 · Cited by 10
“In our study, the increased activation of the bilateral PMC and of the right PFC mentioned was coupled with reduced cortical thickness, a marker of neuronal loss and reduced brain reserve typical of the aging processes (Salat et al., 2004; van Velsen et al., 2013; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundAgeing and the Ipsilateral M1 BOLD Response: A Connectivity Study
Tak, Y. W., Knights, E., Henson, R. N., & Zeidman, P. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091130 · Cited by 10
“Why might inter-hemispheric connections become stronger with age? One possibility is that they compensate for age-related decline [50,51], which could account for the decrease in functional asymmetry across hemispheres (‘HAROLD’).”
BackgroundHow the healthy ageing brain supports semantic binding during language comprehension
Markiewicz, R., Segaert, K., & Mazaheri, A. (2021) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15525 · Cited by 9
“However, the term compensation should be reserved for differing neural patterns which are contributing meaningfully to performance (Cabeza et al., 2018; Grady, 2012).”
BackgroundAltered Connectedness of the Brain Chronnectome During the Progression to Alzheimer’s Disease
Ghanbari, M., Zhou, Z., Hsu, L., Han, Y., Sun, Y., Yap, P., Zhang, H., & Shen, D. G. (2021) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-021-09554-3 · Cited by 9
“Our findings are consistent with previous studies showing that increased functional connectivity within some brain areas may allow the affected individuals to maintain normal behavior despite neuronal loss (Barulli & Stern, 2013; Cabeza et al., 2018).”
BackgroundResultEggert, T., Dorn, H., & Danker‐Hopfe, H. (2022) · Nature and Science of Sleep · doi:10.2147/nss.s336379 · Cited by 9
Neural sensitivity to semantic neighbors is stable across the adult lifespan
Diaz, M. T., Zhang, H., Cosgrove, A. L., Gertel, V. H., Troutman, S. B. W., & Karimi, H. (2022) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2022.108237 · Cited by 10
Persson, N., & Andersson, M. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119239 · Cited by 9
Colombo, B., Fusi, G., Pabla, S., & Caravita, S. C. S. (2022) · Journal of Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.31083/j.jin2104114 · Cited by 9
“Interestingly, some studies have shown that cognitive reserve (CR), defined as the accumulation of brain resources during the entire lifespan [9,10], can moderate the negative association between social isolation and cognitive decline [8].”
BackgroundDistraction by unintentional recognition: Neurocognitive mechanisms and effects of aging.
Allen, J., Hellerstedt, R., Sharma, D., et al. (2020) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/pag0000398 · Cited by 9
Paraskevopoulos, E., Chalas, N., Karagiorgis, A., Karagianni, M., Styliadis, C., Papadelis, G., & Bamidis, P. (2020) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhaa213 · Cited by 9
Neural evidence of functional compensation for fluid intelligence in healthy ageingPreprint
Knights, E., Henson, R. N., Morcom, A. M., Mitchell, D. J., & Tsvetanov, K. A. (2024) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.93327 · Cited by 17
Le Petit Prince Hong Kong (LPPHK): Naturalistic fMRI and EEG data from older Cantonese speakers
Momenian, M., Ma, Z., Wu, S., Wang, C., Brennan, J., Hale, J., Meyer, L., & Li, J. (2024) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-024-03745-8 · Cited by 13
“We know that healthy aging is usually accompanied by individual differences in cognitive decline 6 .”
BackgroundEffects of dual-task interference on swallowing in healthy aging adults
Krishnamurthy, R., Philip, R., Balasubramanium, R. K., & Rangarathnam, B. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0253550 · Cited by 8
“This reduction in hemispheric specialization could be due to several reasons including a compensatory mechanism where the reduced asymmetries could help with the deficits that occur with aging [62] or a de-differentiation mechanism which suggests that reduction in asymmetries are simple by-products of aging [63].”
BackgroundRace, everyday discrimination, and cognitive function in later life
Ferraro, K. F., & Zaborenko, C. J. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0292617 · Cited by 9
Greene, N. R., Forsberg, A., Guitard, D., Naveh‐Benjamin, M., & Cowan, N. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/xge0001551 · Cited by 7
Haitas, N., Dubuc, J., Massé-Leblanc, C., Chamberland, V., Amiri, M., Tristan Glatard, B., Wilson, M. A., Joanette, Y., & Steffener, J. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0289384 · Cited by 7
Self-citation
Metadata
- Authors
- Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I. M., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., Lindenberger, U., Nyberg, L., Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Rugg, M. D., Steffener, J., & Rajah, M. N.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal (CA)
- Baycrest Hospital (CA)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Umeå University (SE)
- The University of Texas at Dallas (US)
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Cabeza, Roberto
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2018-10-10
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 701-710
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- PMC
- PMC6472256
- OpenAlex
- W2896204498
- Cited by
- 1,298
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 235 · 2025: 181 · 2024: 168 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 168 · 2020: 123 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 14.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (acceptedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- National Institute on Aging (RF1AG039103, RF1AG006265)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- cognitive aging, cognitive reserve, cognitive compensation, cognitive maintenance, dementia, brain aging, functional connectivity, terminology definitions
- MeSH terms
- Cognitive Aging, Cognitive Neuroscience, Healthy Aging, Brain, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
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