The adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding
Open accessAbstract
There are declines with age in speed of processing, working memory, inhibitory function, and long-term memory, as well as decreases in brain structure size and white matter integrity. In the face of these decreases, functional imaging studies have demonstrated, somewhat surprisingly, reliable increases in prefrontal activation. To account for these joint phenomena, we propose the scaffolding theory of aging and cognition (STAC). STAC provides an integrative view of the aging mind, suggesting that pervasive increased frontal activation with age is a marker of an adaptive brain that engages in compensatory scaffolding in response to the challenges posed by declining neural structures and function. Scaffolding is a normal process present across the lifespan that involves use and development of complementary, alternative neural circuits to achieve a particular cognitive goal. Scaffolding is protective of cognitive function in the aging brain, and available evidence suggests that the ability to use this mechanism is strengthened by cognitive engagement, exercise, and low levels of default network engagement.
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Compensation can occur at a neural level through competition and rearrangement among relatively autonomous processing circuits without explicit awareness.
“At another level, compensation may occur by competition and rearrangements among relatively autonomous processing circuits, without explicit awareness on the part of the individual of how he or she is compensating (e.g., Cabeza, 2002; Colcombe, Kramer, Erickson, & Scalf, 2005; Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009; ReuterLorenz & Cappel, 2008; Salthouse, 1984; cf. Edelman, 1987).”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009
In “The Scaffolding Theory of Cognitive Aging” (page unavailable), the paper describes neural compensation as recruiting additional circuitry and developing new pathways when existing circuitry cannot meet task demands. This supports compensation through changes in neural circuits, but the passages do not establish competition among relatively autonomous circuits or say that compensation occurs without explicit awareness. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHippocampal function declines with age and is often measured by fear conditioning, which measures short-term memory.
“Hippocampal function, critical for spatial and memory consolidation, declines with age (Gallagher et al., 2010; Miller and O’Callaghan, 2005; Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009) and is often measured by fear-conditioning, which measures short-term memory.”
From Loss of epigenetic information as a cause of mammalian aging (2023) · cites this paper as Park and Reuter-Lorenz, 2009
Park and Reuter-Lorenz (2009) proposed that engagement in active mental challenge for a sustained period promotes formation of neural scaffolds.
“Park and Reuter-Lorenz (2009) have proposed that engagement in such active mental challenge for a sustained period promotes the formation of “neural scaffolds,” that is, supportive neural circuitry that provides a source of additional neural resource compensating for age-related brain shrinkage and neural degradation.”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Park and Reuter-Lorenz (2009)
The Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (STAC) model proposes that neural scaffolding develops in response to continuous engagement associated with novel and cognitively challenging tasks.
“the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition (STAC) model (Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009) proposes that neural scaffolding—recruitment of additional neural circuits to compensate for declining brain structures—develops in response to continuous engagement associated with novel and cognitively challenging tasks.”
From Training Older Adults to Use Tablet Computers: Does It Enhance Cognitive Function? (2016) · cites this paper as Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009
Neural plasticity declines with age but is greater than previously thought.
“Although such neural plasticity is reduced in old age, it remains more substantial than previously recognized”
From Enrichment Effects on Adult Cognitive Development: Can the Functional Capacity of Older Adults Be Preserved and Enhanced? (2008) · cites this paper as Park & Reuter-Lorenz, 2009
If older or higher-risk individuals rely more on compensatory control recruitment at baseline, post-training attenuation may reflect reduced compensatory demand from a scaffolding perspective.
“From a scaffolding perspective82, if older or higher-risk individuals rely more on compensatory control recruitment at baseline, post-training attenuation may reflect reduced compensatory demand.”
From Meta-analysis of computerised working memory training: behavioural gains, training parameters, transfer mechanisms, and neural correlates (2026) · cites this paper as [82]
Neural activity becomes less localized in some brain regions, particularly the prefrontal cortex, in response to executive level tasks.
“In addition to being less integrated, neural activity also becomes less localized in some brain regions, particularly the prefrontal cortex, in response to executive level tasks (3,4).”
From Neural mechanisms of ageing and cognitive decline (2010) · cites this paper as [4]
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Self-citationNeurocognitive ageing of storage and executive processes
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- Hultsch DF Hertzog C Dixon RA Small BJ 1999 Memory Changes in the Aged London Cambridge Univ. Press
- Reuter-Lorenz PA Mikels J Yoshikawa S 2008 Affective working memory: converging evidence for a new construct Emotional Mind: New Directions in Affective Science In press
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“Park and Reuter-Lorenz (2009) have proposed that engagement in such active mental challenge for a sustained period promotes the formation of “neural scaffolds,” that is, supportive neural circuitry that provides a source of additional neural resource compensating for age-related brain shrinkage and…”
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“From a scaffolding perspective 82 , if older or higher-risk individuals rely more on compensatory control recruitment at baseline, post-training attenuation may re fl ect reduced compensatory demand.”
- Authors
- Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Dallas (US)
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109,
- ORCID
- Park, Denise C.
- Venue
- Annual Review of Psychology
- Publisher
- Annual Reviews
- Published
- 2009-01-01
- Volume
- 60
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 173-196
- ISSN
- 0066-4308 (ISSN-L)
- 1545-2085
- PMC
- PMC3359129
- OpenAlex
- W2104897414
- Cited by
- 2,790
- References
- 135
- Citations by year
- 2026: 195 · 2025: 223 · 2024: 181 · 2023: 179 · 2022: 183 · 2021: 163 · 2020: 165 · 2019: 191 · 2018: 185 · 2017: 149 · 2016: 162 · 2015: 141 · 2014: 176 · 2013: 141 · 2012: 128
- FWCI
- 8.53
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Annual Review of Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (R37AG006265)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Neuropsychology and Physiological Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Keywords
- brain aging, prefrontal cortex activation, cognitive decline, working memory, inhibitory control, long-term memory, white matter integrity, cognitive engagement, physical activity, default mode network
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Aging, Atrophy, Brain, Cognition, Cognition Disorders, Demyelinating Diseases, Dominance, Cerebral, Hippocampus, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Memory, Short-Term, Middle Aged, Nerve Net, Neuronal Plasticity, Verbal Learning, Prefrontal Cortex, Imaging, Three-Dimensional
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