The DOI matches its Crossref record; 123 of the 123 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 39 of the 74 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Maintenance, reserve and compensation: the cognitive neuroscience of healthy ageing
Open accessAbstract
Cognitive ageing research examines the cognitive abilities that are preserved and/or those that decline with advanced age. There is great individual variability in cognitive ageing trajectories. Some older adults show little decline in cognitive ability compared with young adults and are thus termed 'optimally ageing'. By contrast, others exhibit substantial cognitive decline and may develop dementia. Human neuroimaging research has led to a number of important advances in our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying these two outcomes. However, interpreting the age-related changes and differences in brain structure, activation and functional connectivity that this research reveals is an ongoing challenge. Ambiguous terminology is a major source of difficulty in this venture. Three terms in particular - compensation, maintenance and reserve - have been used in a number of different ways, and researchers continue to disagree about the kinds of evidence or patterns of results that are required to interpret findings related to these concepts. As such inconsistencies can impede progress in both theoretical and empirical research, here, we aim to clarify and propose consensual definitions of these terms.
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Claims the paper makes
54 Own interpretation · 14 No full text of the sources · 12 Couldn’t confirm · 11 Partly supported · 8 No basis given · 2 Not checked yet · 1 Not supported · 1 Sources not found · accuracy not yet measured
At least one cited source doesn’t support this claim or points to a different paper, and none confirmed it — see the verdicts below.
In the paper
“However, it has been observed that when adults with high levels of reserve, as indicated by one or more reserve proxies, do eventually display cognitive decline, they do so at a rapid rate 69.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Disputedcites [69] Reed, B. R. et al. Measuring cognitive reserve based on the decomposition of episodic memory variance. Brain 133, 2196–2209 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Hypothesis 4 results report that higher baseline reserve predicted slower, not faster, decline in executive function. The Discussion likewise says higher reserve was associated with less decline. The paper does not report a separate analysis of decline after its onset that would support the citing sentence's qualification. (LLM, conf=0.81)
Checked by a reasoning model — may be wrong.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Disputed
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In addition, it is likely that proxy measures of reserve may engage different neural mechanisms, each important for a different aspect reserve, such neural capacity (the total amount of neural resources available for cognition) or neural efficiency (using less neural resources—often operationalized as neural activity—to perform a cognitive task).54,56”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion considers shared and domain-specific mechanisms of age-related cognitive decline, but does not discuss proxy measures of reserve or distinguish neural capacity from neural efficiency. Searches for those terms and for cognitive-reserve proxies found no passage addressing the attributed claim; the Conclusions also say the behavioral evidence cannot establish the nature of the underlying factors. Page numbers were not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.74)
- Partly supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not specified) distinguishes reserve capacity in a threshold model from more efficient use of brain networks in an active model. It also identifies education as a reserve proxy, but does not say that different proxy measures engage different neural mechanisms or correspond to different aspects of reserve. (LLM, conf=0.82)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Diffusion MRI methods have shown age-related changes in white matter connectivity between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions, and within posterior sensory cortices.25–27”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [25] Musiek, E. S. & Holtzman, D. M. Mechanisms linking circadian clocks, sleep, and neurodegeneration. Science 354, 1004–1008 (2016). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Sleep and Neurodegeneration section discusses sleep, synaptic function, and medial prefrontal amyloid pathology, while the Circadian function and neurodegeneration section discusses age-related circadian changes. Neither addresses diffusion MRI or the specified age-related white matter connectivity changes. Searches for diffusion MRI and for connectivity in posterior sensory cortices found no supporting passage in our copy; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Could not verifycites [26] Hullinger, R. & Puglielli, L. Molecular and cellular aspects of age-related cognitive decline and Alzheimer’s disease. Behav. Brain Res. 322, 191–205 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction and §5.1 discuss age-related brain and synaptic changes, but not diffusion MRI findings about the specified cortical connections. Searches for diffusion MRI, white matter, and prefrontal-to-posterior or posterior sensory connectivity found no passage addressing the claim. Page numbers are not available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Partly supportedcites [27] Mattson, M. P. & Arumugam, T. V. Hallmarks of brain aging: adaptive and pathological modification by metabolic states. Cell Metab. 27, 1176–1199 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The 'Aberrant Neuronal Network Activity' section says white matter integrity is compromised during normal aging and describes age-related changes in functional connectivity. It does not say that diffusion MRI showed changes specifically between prefrontal and posterior cortical regions or within posterior sensory cortices. No page number is available in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.86)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“The development of expertise is associated with the presence of richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, which can attenuate age-related decline in the domain of expertise.54,65–67”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract reports age-related cognitive decline, and the Discussion notes that some variation in decline is domain-specific. Neither passage addresses whether expertise produces richer conceptual representations or attenuates decline in an expert domain. Searches for expertise and domain-specific protection found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [65] Alladi, S. et al. Bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia, independent of education and immigration status. Neurology 81, 1938–1944 (2013). source
- Partly supportedcites [66] Anthony, M. & Lin, F. A. Systematic review for functional neuroimaging studies of cognitive reserve across the cognitive aging spectrum. Arch. Clin. Neuropsychol. https://doi.org/10.1093/arclin/acx125 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Introduction (page not available) says cognitive reserve may help people tolerate or compensate for the effects of aging and discusses delaying cognitive decline. It does not address expertise, richer and more differentiated conceptual representations, or protection specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Partly supportedcites [67] Reed, B. R. et al. Cognitive activities during adulthood are more important than education in building reserve. J. Int. Neuropsychol. Soc. 17, 615–624 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) links midlife cognitive activity to greater semantic-memory reserve and suggests that abilities may be maintained to different degrees in the face of dementia. It does not examine expertise or say that developing expertise produces richer, more differentiated conceptual representations; nor does it demonstrate reduced age-related decline specifically within a domain of expertise. (LLM, conf=0.79)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“A good example of a factor that promotes reserve is education, which improves neural resources during childhood and young adulthood, possibly by enhancing synaptic density 50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses formal education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not as a means of improving neural resources. A search of our copy for neural resources, cognitive reserve, and synaptic density found no passage addressing the claimed mechanism during childhood or young adulthood. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“For instance, one study found that greater cognitive reserve, as measured using IQ and education-occupation as proxies, was associated with lower activity during cognitive processing, suggesting more effective use of cerebral networks.30”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [30] Sampedro-Piquero, P., Alvarez-Suarez, P. & Begega, A. Coping with stress during aging: the importance of a resilient brain. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 16, 284–296 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In “Effects on Neurobiological Resilient Mechanisms” (page unavailable), the paper reports lower metabolic activity in aged, enriched rats performing a spatial-learning task. It does not link that activity to cognitive reserve measured by IQ or education–occupation, and it proposes better stress coping rather than more effective use of cerebral networks. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Also, cross-sectional designs can be contaminated by birth cohort effects, including inter-generational IQ increases (the ‘Flynn Effect’).43,44”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [43] Giorgio, A. et al. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage 51, 943–951 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) says the study’s cross-sectional design compares different cohorts across age groups and may be less sensitive to lifespan brain changes than a longitudinal design. This supports the general concern about cohort effects, but our copy does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [44] Madden, D. J. et al. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive control. Neuroimage 52, 643–657 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion’s Limitations section says cross-sectional age-group differences reflect cohort differences as well as chronological age. It does not mention inter-generational IQ increases or the Flynn Effect; searches for those terms found no supporting passage. Page numbers were not provided in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.87)
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Genetic55 and environmental factors,54,56 including longer education,32 greater physical activity,57 active participation in demanding leisure activities58 and bilingualism59,60 impact individual differences in reserve.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [55] Stern, Y., Gazes, Y., Razlighi, Q., Steffener, J. & Habeck, C. A task-invariant cognitive reserve network. Neuroimage 178, 36–45 (2018). source
The Introduction states that educational attainment, exercise, and leisure activities may account for individual differences in cognitive reserve. This supports the environmental-factors point to which this source is cited; the sentence separately cites other sources for genetics and bilingualism. (LLM, conf=0.90)
- Partly supportedcites [54] Ghisletta, P., Rabbitt, P., Lunn, M. & Lindenberger, U. Two thirds of the age-based changes in fluid and crystallized intelligence, perceptual speed, and memory in adulthood are shared. Intelligence 40, 260–268 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page not provided) suggests that lifestyle and common genetic variation may contribute to individual differences in rates of cognitive decline. It does not establish that these factors affect individual differences in reserve. The specific examples in the sentence have separate citations and are not attributed to this paper. (LLM, conf=0.83)
- Supportedcites [56] Piras, F., Cherubini, A., Caltagirone, C. & Spalletta, G. Education mediates microstructural changes in bilateral hippocampus. Hum. Brain Mapp. 32, 282–289 (2011). source
The citation to this paper is attached to longer education, not to the other factors in the sentence. The Abstract links education to reserve and reports that higher education correlated with a hippocampal microstructural measure; the Introduction likewise describes education-dependent differences in brain structure and function. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [32] Morgan, D. G. The dopamine and serotonin systems during aging in human and rodent brain. A brief review. Prog. Neuropsychopharmacol. Biol. Psychiatry 11, 153–157 (1987). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Possibly, at some level, the burden of pathology becomes great enough to overcome this protective mechanism, resulting in rapid cognitive decline31,53.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [31] Rosario, E. R., Chang, L., Head, E. H., Stanczyk, F. Z. & Pike, C. J. Brain levels of sex steroid hormones in men and women during normal aging and in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 604–613 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion describes a possible protective role for sex hormones against Alzheimer’s pathology, but does not discuss cognitive reserve, a pathology threshold that overcomes it, or rapid cognitive decline. Searches for reserve and pathology-threshold language found no passage addressing that proposed sequence. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [53] Raz, N. et al. Regional brain changes in aging healthy adults: general trends, individual differences and modifiers. Cereb. Cortex 15, 1676–1689 (2005). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion says the study found no support for the brain reserve hypothesis, while noting that its cognitive measures were too narrow to settle the question. It discusses pathology and brain shrinkage, but does not address whether a threshold of pathology overcomes reserve and causes rapid cognitive decline (searched: pathology burden, reserve, protective mechanism, rapid cognitive decline). (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“One example of how increased capacity is associated with a proxy measure of reserve is the aforementioned effect of education on synaptic density.50”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [50] Trahan, L. H., Stuebing, K. K., Fletcher, J. M. & Hiscock, M. The Flynn effect: a meta-analysis. Psychol. Bull. 140, 1332–1360 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The “What is Rising?” section discusses education as a possible contributor to rising IQ scores, not its effect on synaptic density. Searches for synaptic density, neural capacity, and reserve found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed association. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“As task difficulty increases, neural activity (particularly in frontal regions) tends to increase up to a certain level33, beyond which activation asymptotes and ultimately declines (FIG. 3–A)36,37.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract (page unavailable) reports increased prefrontal activity during task performance in people with Alzheimer’s dementia, but does not relate that activity to increasing task difficulty. The cited paper’s copy does not establish the graded increase or threshold attributed to citation 33; searches for task difficulty, load, and increasing demands found no such passage. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] Grady, C. L. The cognitive neuroscience of ageing. Nat. Rev. Neurosci. 13, 491–505 (2012). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“In the case of aging, reorganization could underlie the well-established finding that older adults often show more bilateral patterns of brain activity than younger adults43–45”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [43] Giorgio, A. et al. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage 51, 943–951 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results section on age-subgroup comparisons reports bilateral differences in grey-matter volume, not bilateral patterns of brain activity. Searches for reorganization, compensation, and bilateral activation found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed functional pattern in older versus younger adults. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Partly supportedcites [44] Madden, D. J. et al. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive control. Neuroimage 52, 643–657 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract describes greater frontoparietal activation in older adults across several executive-control studies and suggests compensatory recruitment. The Discussion section on event-related and sustained activation also reports greater activation in several prefrontal regions in older adults. Neither passage establishes the specific finding that older adults often show more bilateral activity than younger adults; the proposed explanation by reorganization is the citing authors’ framing. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Not matchedcites [45] Craik, F. I. M. & Salthouse, T. A. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2000).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“This is because maintenance mechanisms are ideally investigated using longitudinal data, as only within-person assessments can truly quantify change, or, in case of maintenance, lack thereof.74”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [74] Li, Y. et al. Sound credit scores and financial decisions despite cognitive aging. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 112, 65–69 (2015). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion (page unavailable) describes the study as cross-sectional and recommends examining the interplay of cognitive abilities and knowledge rather than age alone. It does not say that longitudinal, within-person assessments are necessary to quantify change or maintenance; searches for those methodological terms found no supporting passage. (LLM, conf=0.75)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Compensatory upregulation could explain the frequent finding that at least some age-related activity increases are evident within the same brain regions that younger adults recruit during the same task.81”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [81] Persson, J. et al. Longitudinal structure–function correlates in elderly reveal MTL dysfunction with cognitive decline. Cereb. Cortex 22, 2297–2304 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion suggests that increased parahippocampal activity in older adults with declining memory performance might be attempted functional compensation. It does not establish the claimed frequent finding that age-related increases occur in the same regions younger adults recruit during the same task; this study follows older adults over time rather than making that comparison. (LLM, conf=0.84)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Partly supported
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, a longitudinal structural MRI study from the Swedish Betula project71 found that individuals aged 65 years or older, with little or no episodic memory decline over a 15-year period, showed less hippocampal atrophy over 4 years than individuals with substantial memory decline”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [71] Adamson, M. M. et al. Higher landing accuracy in expert pilots is associated with lower activity in the caudate nucleus. PLOS ONE 9, e112607 (2014). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Materials and Methods section describes MRI acquisition and processing for a study of pilots, while the Results section reports brain activity during a landing-decision task. Searches for the Swedish Betula project, episodic-memory decline, and longitudinal hippocampal atrophy found no passage addressing the claimed comparison. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Similarly, in a longitudinal fMRI study73 hippocampal activity during an episodic memory task was significantly higher in people whose memory function was stable over two decades than in people whose memory abilities declined over this period”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [73] Kozasa, E. H. et al. Effects of a 7-day meditation retreat on the brain function of meditators and non-meditators during an attention task. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 12, 222 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Materials and Methods (Image Processing; page unavailable) describe a pre- and post-retreat Stroop attention task, and the Results (Stroop Task Imaging Results; page unavailable) compare meditators with non-meditators. Searches for an episodic-memory task and a two-decade comparison of stable versus declining memory found no passage reporting the claimed hippocampal result. (LLM, conf=0.78)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“the well-established finding that older adults often show more bilateral patterns of brain activity than younger adults43–45”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [43] Giorgio, A. et al. Age-related changes in grey and white matter structure throughout adulthood. Neuroimage 51, 943–951 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract describes age-related changes in brain structure, and the Results section on age-subgroup comparisons reports bilateral differences in grey-matter volume—not brain activity. Searches for bilateral brain activity and functional activation found no passage in our copy addressing whether older adults show more bilateral activity than younger adults. Page numbers were not provided. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Partly supportedcites [44] Madden, D. J. et al. Adult age differences in functional connectivity during executive control. Neuroimage 52, 643–657 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (Target-related activation; page unavailable) report greater activation for older than younger adults in the prefrontal cortex bilaterally. This supports an example of bilateral age-related activation, but the paper does not establish the broader claim that older adults often have more bilateral activity patterns across tasks. (LLM, conf=0.78)
- Not matchedcites [45] Craik, F. I. M. & Salthouse, T. A. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2000).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Could not verify
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, highly educated individuals may show different activation patterns than individuals with lower educational attainment because their greater reserve allows them to deploy more effective compensatory processes.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individual differences in age-related cognitive decline undoubtedly reflect a complex interaction between genetic and environmental factors, whose actions could be partly mediated by three interacting mechanisms known as reserve, maintenance, and compensation (FIG. 1–A).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“and then attenuates age-related cognitive decline. 51,52”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [51] Deary, I. J., Whiteman, M. C., Starr, J. M., Whalley, L. J. & Fox, H. C. The impact of childhood intelligence on later life: following up the Scottish mental surveys of 1932 and 1947. J. Pers Soc. Psychol. 86, 130–147 (2004). source
- Not matchedcites [52] Nyberg, L., Pudas, S. & Lundquist, A. in Cogntiive Neuroscience of Aging 2nd edn (eds Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L. & Park, D. C.) (Oxford Univ. Press, 2016).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Complicating the distinction, reserve and the capacity for compensation may interact.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An example of an increase in neural efficiency is the development of expertise in a particular domain through training.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“In fact, some 80-year olds can perform as well as or better than some 40-year olds, even when considering functions generally impaired by aging such as episodic memory.42”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [42] Salat, D. H. et al. Age-related changes in prefrontal white matter measured by diffusion tensor imaging. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1064, 37–49 (2005). source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of compensation (FIG. 1–D), heightened cognitive demands due to the combined effects of task difficulty and age-related cognitive decline are counteracted by recruiting additional neural resources, including those established by neural enhancement.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Moreover, cross-sectional designs cannot distinguish between age-invariant and age-related differences, which is important as a large proportion of variance in cognitive performance among older adults existed already when they were children.45”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [45] Craik, F. I. M. & Salthouse, T. A. The Handbook of Aging and Cognition (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ, 2000).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Not matched
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Inter-individual variability in cognitive aging is striking.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When investigating individual differences among older adults, however, cross-sectional designs have several limitations compared to longitudinal designs.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, one study decomposed variance in episodic memory performance into a component predicted by demographics, a component predicted by pathology (as measured by structural MRI), and a residual “reserve” component, which was then shown to moderate cognitive decline.64”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [64] Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M. & Freedman, M. Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychologia 45, 459–464 (2007). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“These age-related declines in brain structure and function are associated with cognitive decline in a variety of domains.28,29”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [28] Santoro, A. et al. Innate immunity and cellular senescence: the good and the bad in the developmental and aged brain. J. Leukoc. Biol. 103, 509–524 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [29] Backman, L., Lindenberger, U., Li, S. C. & Nyberg, L. Linking cognitive aging to alterations in dopamine neurotransmitter functioning: recent data and future avenues. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 34, 670–677 (2010). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Unlike compensation by upregulation, compensation by selection involves a qualitative difference in the cognitive processes engaged by older and younger individuals”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“First, it is not just “compensation” but “compensation for”, and hence, evidence should be available that the activation is directly or indirectly related to some insufficiency or gap between available neural resources (“supply”) and task demands (supply-demand gap)76,79.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [79] Ten Brinke, L. F. et al. Aerobic exercise increases cortical white matter volume in older adults with vascular cognitive impairment: a 6-month randomized controlled trial. Alzheimers Dement. 11, 606 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, there is evidence that recovery from aphasia following a left-hemisphere stroke is associated with the recruitment of right hemispheric regions that do not support language processes in the normal brain83.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [83] Miller, E. K. & Cohen, J. D. An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 24, 167–202 (2001). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In such cases, the processes recruited by older adults would be the same as those engaged by younger adults, with the primary difference being quantitative: older adults would engage the process to a greater extent than younger adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Critically, this does not imply that cross-sectional brain data cannot be informative.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“and hence it is likely to be associated with the recruitment of different brain regions, rather than recruitment of the same region with differential levels of activity (as in upregulation).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Note that without a parametric manipulation of task demands, one could mistakenly attribute an over-activation in older adults to selection rather than upregulation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Finally, we note that this form of compensation is related to individual differences in reserve because some older adults may have a larger repertoire of alternative neural implementation of a given behavior than others, reflecting differences in accumulated reserve.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
In the paper
“At the same time, the high degree of covariance among changes in different cognitive abilities suggests that maintenance in one functional domain is likely to be related to maintenance in another domain48.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Habib, R., Nyberg, L. & Nilsson, L. G. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the Betula study. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 14, 257–273 (2007). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“However, when considering cross-sectional studies it is important to remember that some differences between young and older adults could be due to cohort effects, such as early life influences, and not aging per se, as such effects have been noted in the brain75.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [75] Lindenberger, U., Kliegl, R. & Baltes, P. B. Professional expertise does not eliminate age-differences in imagery-based memory performance during adulthood. Psychol. Aging 7, 585–593 (1992). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“The notion of maintenance is consistent with evidence that adults who display stable cognitive performance as they age tend to show minimal brain decline or pathology.33”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“Behavioral genetic studies suggest that genetic and environmental contributions to maintenance become increasingly correlated with advancing age.77”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [77] Vaci, N., Gula, B. & Bilalic, M. Is age really cruel to experts? Compensatory effects of activity. Psychol. Aging 30, 740–754 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
In the paper
“For example, successful maintenance could explain cross-sectional findings that the brains of high-performing older adults look similar in anatomy and physiology to young brains, whereas the brains of low-performing older adults look different to young brains.33”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, the efficacy of maintenance depends both on the magnitude of decline and the efficacy of repair.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“If the new regions engaged by older adults are sometimes recruited by younger adults in other similar or more difficult conditions, then the finding would be more consistent with compensation by selection.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Likewise, it is not enough to accumulate reserve and maintain it, it is also necessary to deploy these resources during task performance in response to task demands, that is to engage in compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: unclear — It is unclear whether it could be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, if education augments reserve by increasing synaptic density, this can only go on to attenuate age-related cognitive decline if the new synapses are preserved via maintenance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 31
- Probably not a substantial claim. 38
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies have shown that normal aging is associated with gray matter volume reductions and functional alterations in several regions critical for higher cognitive function: prefrontal, medial temporal and parietal cortices.21–24”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [21] Roy, A. K. et al. Impacts of transcriptional regulation on aging and senescence. Ageing Res. Rev. 1, 367–380 (2002). source
- Could not verifycites [22] Foster, T. C. Role of estrogen receptor alpha and beta expression and signaling on cognitive function during aging. Hippocampus 22, 656–669 (2012). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The paper’s section on ERα and ERβ expression and E2-induced synaptogenesis discusses age-related synaptic and memory changes, not MRI findings. Searches for gray-matter volume, MRI, and the specified cortical regions found no passage in our copy addressing the claimed regional volume reductions and functional alterations. (LLM, conf=0.75)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [23] Papenberg, G., Salami, A., Persson, J., Lindenberger, U. & Backman, L. Genetics and functional imaging: effects of APOE, BDNF, COMT, and KIBRA in aging. Neuropsychol Rev. 25, 47–62 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 (Apoptosis; page unavailable) discusses possible neuronal loss with aging, but does not report MRI findings, gray matter volume reductions, or functional changes in the named cortices. Searches for those cortical regions and for MRI and gray matter volume found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that young adults may also upregulate activity in response to increased task demands, but that the demand threshold for upregulation may be higher in young, compared to older adults24,36.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [24] Campisi, J. Cellular senescence and apoptosis: how cellular responses might influence aging phenotypes. Exp. Gerontol. 38, 5–11 (2003). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
Section 2.1 discusses apoptosis and neuronal compensation after cell loss; Figure 1 discusses thresholds at which tissue health becomes compromised. Neither addresses activity upregulation in response to task demands or compares the demand thresholds of young and older adults (searched for task demands and cognitive activity upregulation). Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.77)
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased fMRI activity in people with mild cognitive impairment or at risk of Alzheimer’s disease, but does not compare young and older adults’ responses to increasing task demands. Searches for young adults, task difficulty, and demand thresholds found no passage addressing the proposed difference in upregulation thresholds. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“For example, given the link between exercise and white-matter integrity,70 it is possible that individuals who exercise regularly maintain white-matter integrity better than other aspects of the brain.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [70] Bernardi, G. et al. How skill expertise shapes the brain functional architecture: an fMRI study of visuo-spatial and motor processing in professional racing-car and naive drivers. PLOS ONE 8, e77764 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the asserted link between exercise and white-matter integrity. The Conclusions discuss psycho-physical training and functional brain efficiency, while the Methods mention white matter only as a signal used in fMRI processing; neither addresses white-matter integrity in people who exercise regularly (page numbers unavailable). Searched for white-matter integrity, exercise, and physical training. (LLM, conf=0.76)
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Linking compensation to successful performance (Box 1) helps distinguish compensation from activation differences due to inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology (Box 2)80.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [80] Gorbach, T. et al. Longitudinal association between hippocampus atrophy and episodic-memory decline. Neurobiol. Aging 51, 167–176 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results (§3.3) link hippocampal change with episodic-memory change, and the Discussion (§4) relates preserved memory to brain maintenance. Neither addresses whether linking compensation to successful performance distinguishes it from inefficiency, dedifferentiation, or pathology. Searches for those terms and for activation differences found no relevant passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.76)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Could not verify
The cited sources that could be checked couldn’t confirm or dispute this claim.
In the paper
“Although greater activity in older adults may merely reflect inefficiency,82 it is difficult to interpret greater activity as inefficient when it correlates positively with cognitive performance, which is one of our requirements for applying the term compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [82] Pudas, S. et al. Brain characteristics of individuals resisting age-related cognitive decline over two decades. J. Neurosci. 33, 8668–8677 (2013). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The citation is attached to the suggestion that greater activity in older adults may reflect inefficiency, not to the citing authors’ subsequent argument about performance correlations. The Introduction and Discussion discuss greater activation as possible compensation, neural capacity, or a longstanding individual difference, but do not address inefficiency. Searches for “inefficiency” and “inefficient neural activity” found no supporting passage in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.72)
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Could not verify
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Similar to the concept of reserve, the mechanisms contributing to maintenance are also likely to have both genetic77 and environmental origins, with the latter including factors such as diet, exercise, and cognitive and social engagement33,57,78.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [77] Vaci, N., Gula, B. & Bilalic, M. Is age really cruel to experts? Compensatory effects of activity. Psychol. Aging 30, 740–754 (2015). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
- Partly supportedcites [57] Stern, Y. Cognitive reserve and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis. Assoc. Disord. 20, 112–117 (2006). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
In MEASURES OF RESERVE (p. 2), Stern discusses genetic and environmental influences on reserve and says that exercise and stimulating environments promote neurogenesis in animals. EPIDEMIOLOGIC EVIDENCE FOR CR (p. 2) links cognitive and social activities with lower dementia risk. The paper does not address diet or establish these factors as mechanisms of maintenance, rather than reserve. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [78] Stern, Y., Albert, S., Tang, M. & Tsai, W. Rate of memory decline in AD is related to education and occupation. Neurology 1, 1942–1947 (1999). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Several studies36,38–41 have found that, consistent with reduced neural resources, older adults show a greater increase in activity, a lower asymptote, and an earlier decline than younger adults”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Could not verifycites [36] Sperling, R. Potential of functional MRI as a biomarker in early Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiol. Aging 32 (Suppl. 1), S37–S43 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract discusses increased activation in people at risk for Alzheimer’s disease, followed by loss of activation as cognitive impairment worsens; it does not compare activation patterns in older and younger adults. Searches for “asymptote” and age-related activation under increasing task demand found no passage addressing the claimed lower asymptote or earlier decline. (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [38] Tromp, D., Dufour, A., Lithfous, S., Pebayle, T. & Despres, O. Episodic memory in normal aging and Alzheimer disease: insights from imaging and behavioral studies. Ageing Res. Rev. 24, 232–262 (2015). source
- Could not verifycites [39] Walhovd, K. B. et al. Consistent neuroanatomical age-related volume differences across multiple samples. Neurobiol. Aging 32, 916–932 (2011). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Discussion reports age-related differences in brain volume, including accelerating white-matter volume loss after middle age. It does not address the claimed pattern of neural activity—a greater increase, lower asymptote, and earlier decline in older adults (searched: activity, neural resources, and functional activation). (LLM, conf=0.76)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [40] Rajah, M. N., Maillet, D. & Grady, C. L. in The Wiley Handbook of Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory (eds Addis, D., Barense, M. & Duarte, A.) 347–361 (Wiley Publishers, New York, 2015). source
- Partly supportedcites [41] Nyberg, L. et al. Longitudinal evidence for diminished frontal cortex function in aging. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 107, 22682–22686 (2010). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results and Discussion report reduced frontal activity as older adults were followed over time, which supports an age-related reduction in recruitment. They do not establish the claimed greater increase in activity, lower asymptote, or earlier decline relative to younger adults; the Discussion cautions that cross-sectional signs of increased activity reflected a selected elderly sample. Page numbers are unavailable in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.85)
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
- Could not verify
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The time-scale of maintenance processes likely varies depending on the neural level at which it takes place (molecules, cells or systems).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Reserve is hypothesized to accumulate before neural resources demonstrate age-related decreases, over a period of years.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that if reserve is defined merely as “the factor that individuals with greater reserve have,” and then this factor is used to explain why some individuals have greater reserve, the argument is clearly circular.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is important to emphasize that the mechanisms of reserve, maintenance, and compensation are not static but dynamic and modifiable, and they are likely not only responsible for modifying behavior, but are in turn modified by such changes.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Maintenance occurs throughout the lifespan but may become more critical in old age, as neural deterioration becomes more severe.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Presumably reserve accumulates most during childhood and young adulthood, but it may also build up in older age,9”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [9] Rajah, M. N. & D’Esposito, M. Region-specific changes in prefrontal function with age: a review of PET and fMRI studies on working and episodic memory. Brain 128, 1964–1983 (2005). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, whereas older participants are typically recruited only from the sub-set of people who aged successfully, young adult samples are more heterogeneous.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Although they have their own limitations,46 longitudinal designs avoid these problems and can consistently demonstrate large individual differences in rates of age-related decline.47,48”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [46] Lindenberger, U. Human cognitive aging: corriger la fortune? Science 346, 572–578 (2014). source
- Not matchedcites [47] World Health Organisation. World Report on Ageing and Health (eds Beard, J., Officer, A. & Cassels, A.) (WHO, Luxembourg, 2015).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [48] Habib, R., Nyberg, L. & Nilsson, L. G. Cognitive and non-cognitive factors contributing to the longitudinal identification of successful older adults in the Betula study. Aging Neuropsychol. Cogn. 14, 257–273 (2007). source
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the ideal case, accumulated reserve is enough to completely offset age-related neural decline, whereas in the typical case, it only attenuates this decline.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the optimal case, repair processes fully counteract decline. In the typical scenario, however, repair processes do not completely offset neural deterioration, leading to a gradual process of age-related neural deterioration.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, some individuals may be relatively spared from detrimental brain changes in the first place resulting in a high likelihood of displaying maintenance regardless of the capacity for repair.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Individual differences reflecting compensation, in contrast, might be expected to differ according to the nature of the cognitive challenge, and to correlate more with individual differences in task performance than with proxy measures of reserve”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Differences related to reserve might be expected to manifest as ‘trait-like’ effects that are evident across a range of different cognitive domains, and to correlate with independent proxies of reserve, such as IQ or educational level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Reserve
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve and maintenance (FIGS. 1–B/C), processes of age-related ‘neural decline’ (such as brain atrophy, synaptic loss, white-matter degradation, etc.) are countered by processes of ‘neural enhancement,’ that is, the creation, replenishment, and repair of neural resources (brain anatomy and physiology mediating cognitive processes).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, over the years, these terms have been used inconsistently, creating confusion and slowing progress.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Introduction
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Whereas hippocampal maintenance has been associated with episodic memory maintenance, the maintenance of other brain regions is likely to be associated with the preservation of other cognitive abilities33.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [33] Freeman, G. B. & Gibson, G. E. Dopamine, acetylcholine, and glutamate interactions in aging. Behavioral and neurochemical correlates. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 515, 191–202 (1988). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, PFC maintenance could be associated with the maintenance of cognitive control.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the context of aging, it is more appropriate to emphasize the loss in neural resources.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This is a point on which our view departs from some uses of the term compensation in the literature, where the term is often applied to any age-related increase in brain activity, or to the recruitment of additional brain regions in older but not young adults, regardless of relationship with performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Therefore, although the concepts of reserve and maintenance are similar, we view them as complementary perspectives on how environmental and biological factors influence brain aging and cognition.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the case of reserve, these factors cumulative influence neural capacity and neural efficiency (and other mechanisms not yet identified due to limits of technology). In the case of maintenance, these factors influence neural mechanisms of repair and plasticity (and others not yet identified).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The important point is that the process selected by older adults is also available to young adults, but less likely to be the one that supports their performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Also, older adults may show activation in a different region than young adults, but this region could be a different component of the same functional network recruited by younger adults, suggesting compensation by upregulation rather than selection.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We posit that these forms of compensation are not mutually exclusive such that one or more may co-occur within or across individuals.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by upregulation refers to the enhancement of cognitive performance by boosting a neural process in response to task demands.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We acknowledge that reserve has an impact on later maintenance, and vice versa, as the accumulated reserve must be maintained.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is theoretically possible that the extent to which different maintenance mechanisms operate depends on initial brain measures.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In our view, without a link to performance, these findings should be simply described as age-related differences (increases or decreases) in activity, and not as compensatory activity.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The closest analogy to this type of compensation would be the development of new neural mechanisms following brain damage.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This gap may be due to an age-related reduction in neural resources (e.g., brain atrophy, reduced blood flow, neurotransmitter deficits, reduced neural specificity, etc.), due to an increase in task demands, or both.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“reserve is about enhancing and augmenting resources, whereas maintenance is about their up-keep.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation by selection occurs when older adults recruit neural circuitry associated with cognitive processes that are available to but not engaged by young adults under the same objective task conditions.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Second, evidence should be available that the enhanced activation in older adults is related to a beneficial effect on cognitive performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
In the paper
“Finally, compensation by reorganization occurs when older adults use an alternative neural mechanism to respond to aging-induced losses that is not available to younger individuals76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
““brain maintainers” include individuals who start with above-average brain measures in early adulthood (e.g., larger hippocampus) and maintain these high levels into older age, as well as individuals who start below average (e.g., smaller hippocampus) and maintaining functioning at that lower level.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“we found it necessary to distinguish among three different mechanisms or forms of compensation (all incorporating the two criteria above): upregulation, selection, and recruitment of additional processes (see FIG 3).”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Greater brain activity or connectivity is sometimes interpreted as being beneficial to older adults, without any additional supporting evidence.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Compensation is temporally linked to variations in cognitive demands and can occur rapidly, in a matter of seconds.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“In summary, we see maintenance as a dynamic process that engages neural mechanisms of cellular repair and may overlap to a large degree with mechanisms of brain plasticity in adulthood76.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [76] Morrow, D., Leirer, V., Altieri, P. & Fitzsimmons, C. When expertise reduces age-differences in performance. Psychol. Aging 9, 134–148 (1994). source
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For example, older adults may engage a less effective but also a less demanding process, whereas younger adults prefer a more effective but more demanding one.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, given the close interaction between different brain structures and processes, it is also possible to talk about general brain maintenance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although these alternative circuits may be less effective than the original ones, their recruitment may still benefit performance.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, we believe that two basic criteria must be fulfilled in order to attribute greater activity/connectivity in older adults to compensation.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Given that maintenance is operationalized as a relative lack of decline in one or more neural measures, and not in absolute terms”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Maintenance
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In functional neuroimaging studies, compensation is often used to describe a situation in which brain activity, or functional connectivity, is greater, or more widespread, in older adults than in younger adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Although we have discussed reserve, maintenance, and compensation in separate sections, they can operate concurrently and affect each other.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“That is, individuals with neurological disease or disorder may compensate for their disorder-related deficit in ways similar to those described here for healthy older adults.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“It is worth noting that although we compared reorganization due to aging and due to brain damage, they differ in several ways, including the fact that the time-course of aging is slow whereas the course of brain injury is fast.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Compensation
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, when considering the potential effects of cognitive training on promoting reserve, one has to consider whether age-related deficits in maintenance will render these effects less effective.”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In addition, we note that despite our focus on healthy aging, the concepts we have discussed also can be applied in other domains, including child development, acute brain injury, neurodegeneration, and psychiatric illness”
§ Cognitive neuroscience of healthy aging: Maintenance, reserve, and compensation > Conclusions
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: fails — The paper may give no reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Mechanisms, understood as putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis, such as genetic, cellular, and system levels.
“We assume that mechanisms, which refer to putative causal explanations of age-related changes, exist at multiple levels of analysis (genetic, cellular, system, etc.).”
The authors state this as an assumption.
Because of age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed them when younger.
“we assume that due to age-related neural decline, some older adults have difficulty implementing cognitive operations that would not have taxed their younger selves.”
The authors state this as an assumption.
The asymptote in neural activity reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects breakdown in cognitive performance when those resources are exceeded.
“It is assumed that the asymptote reflects available neural resources, and the final decline reflects the breakdown in cognitive performance when these resources are exceeded.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Reserve cannot be measured directly.
“Given that it is not possible to measure reserve directly, most studies of reserve have focused on a particular proxy and how it relates to the functioning brain.”
The paper relies on this without support.
Most cognitive aging research so far has used samples composed largely of healthy, well-educated, high-functioning older adults who are mostly Caucasian.
“We also note with caution that most studies of cognitive aging to date have been limited to testing samples of high functioning, highly educated, and mostly Caucasian healthy older adults.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Similar protective effects of education have been observed in Alzheimer’s disease and frontotemporal dementia50,51, indicating some commonality with other neurodegenerative conditions.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“We caution that neurocognitive reserve is a complex construct that is operationalized using proxies such as education, but it cannot be directly measured51.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“These findings would be consistent with education promoting neurocognitive reserve51, increasing resilience to neuronal degeneration resulting from MS injury and aging.”
From Locus for severity implicates CNS resilience in progression of multiple sclerosis (2023) · cites this paper as [51]
The check wasn’t confident either way, so it gives no verdict — never disputed.
In the citing paper
“Previous research has indicated that, compared with abstract verbal cues, photographs as concrete visual materials are more likely to stimulate memory retrieval and facilitate detailed event recall and narrative development (Benoit et al., 2015;Petrelli & Whittaker, 2010).”
From Designing for Reminiscence in Digital Photo Systems for Older Adults: A Scoping Review (2026) · cites this paper as Cabeza et al., 2018
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Citations
Cites
McKhann, G. M., Knopman, D. S., Chertkow, H., Hyman, B. T., Jack, C. R., Kawas, C. H., Klunk, W. E., Koroshetz, W. J., Manly, J. J., Mayeux, R., et al. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.005 · Cited by 18,657
An Integrative Theory of Prefrontal Cortex Function
Miller, E. K., & Cohen, J. D. (2001) · Annual Review of Neuroscience · doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.24.1.167 · Cited by 12,803
Albert, M. S., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D., Dubois, B., Feldman, H. H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., et al. (2011) · Alzheimer's & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2011.03.008 · Cited by 10,152
Self-citationImaging Cognition II: An Empirical Review of 275 PET and fMRI Studies
Cabeza, R., & Nyberg, L. (2000) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/08989290051137585 · Cited by 3,598
Self-citationThe World report on ageing and health: a policy framework for healthy ageing
Beard, J. R., Officer, A., de Carvalho, I. A., Sadana, R., Pot, A. M., Michel, J.-P., Lloyd-Sherlock, P., Epping-Jordan, J. E., Peeters, G. M. E. E. (., Mahanani, W. R., et al. (2016) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(15)00516-4 · Cited by 3,287
Stern, Y. (2009) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.004 · Cited by 2,943
Regional Brain Changes in Aging Healthy Adults: General Trends, Individual Differences and Modifiers
Raz, N., Lindenberger, U., Rodrigue, K. M., Kennedy, K. M., Head, D., Williamson, A., Dahle, C., Gerstorf, D., & Acker, J. D. (2005) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhi044 · Cited by 2,875
Self-citationThe adaptive brain: aging and neurocognitive scaffolding
Park, D. C., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656 · Cited by 2,790
Self-citationAlbert, M., DeKosky, S. T., Dickson, D. W., Dubois, B., Feldman, H., Fox, N. C., Gamst, A. C., Holtzman, D. M., Jagust, W. J., Petersen, R. C., et al. (2013) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.11.1.96 · Cited by 2,643
Self-citationHemispheric asymmetry reduction in older adults: the HAROLD model
Cabeza, R. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.1.85 · Cited by 2,125
Self-citation
Research works printed but not linked: 1
- Nyberg, L., Pudas, S. & Lundquist, A. in Cogntiive Neuroscience of Aging 2nd edn (eds Cabeza, R., Nyberg, L. & Park, D. C.) (Oxford Univ. Press, 2016).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Education and cognitive functioning across the life span
Lövdén, M., Fratiglioni, L., Glymour, M. M., Lindenberger, U., & Tucker-Drob, E. M. (2020) · Psychological Science in the Public Interest · doi:10.1177/1529100620920576 · Cited by 1,224
“…the combined effects of disease progression for all pathologies that are co-occurring in the brain, offset by repair or replenishment and compensation (Barulli & Stern, 2013; Cabeza et al., 2018; Nyberg, Lövdén, Riklund, Lindenberger, & Bäckman, 2012; Stern, 2002, 2006; Stern et al., 2018).”
BackgroundSelf-citationDefining Cognitive Reserve and Implications for Cognitive Aging
Pettigrew, C. A., & Soldan, A. (2019) · Current Neurology and Neuroscience Reports · doi:10.1007/s11910-019-0917-z · Cited by 484
The Effects of Age-Related Hearing Loss on the Brain and Cognitive Function
Slade, K., Plack, C. J., & Nuttall, H. E. (2020) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/j.tins.2020.07.005 · Cited by 362
“There is evidence for cognitive compensation and neural upregulation across numerous sensory and motor domains [53], including sensorimotor ageing in Alzheimer’s disease [54].”
BackgroundNeural Dedifferentiation in the Aging Brain
Koen, J. D., & Rugg, M. D. (2019) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2019.04.012 · Cited by 362
Self-citationBrain structure and cognitive ability in healthy aging: a review on longitudinal correlated change
Oschwald, J., Guye, S., Liem, F., Rast, P., Willis, S. L., Röcke, C., Jäncke, L., Martin, M., & Mérillat, S. (2019) · Reviews in the Neurosciences · doi:10.1515/revneuro-2018-0096 · Cited by 273
Metadata
- Authors
- Cabeza, R., Albert, M., Belleville, S., Craik, F. I. M., Duarte, A., Grady, C. L., Lindenberger, U., Nyberg, L., Park, D. C., Reuter-Lorenz, P. A., Rugg, M. D., Steffener, J., & Rajah, M. N.
- Affiliations
- Duke University (US)
- Johns Hopkins University (US)
- Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal (CA)
- Baycrest Hospital (CA)
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Max Planck Institute for Human Development (DE)
- Umeå University (SE)
- The University of Texas at Dallas (US)
- University of Ottawa (CA)
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Cabeza, Roberto
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Reviews Neuroscience
- Published
- 2018-10-10
- Volume
- 19
- Issue
- 11
- Pages
- 701-710
- ISSN
- 1471-003X (ISSN-L)
- 1471-0048
- PMC
- PMC6472256
- OpenAlex
- W2896204498
- Cited by
- 1,298
- References
- 123
- Citations by year
- 2026: 235 · 2025: 181 · 2024: 168 · 2023: 185 · 2022: 162 · 2021: 168 · 2020: 123 · 2019: 68 · 2018: 5
- FWCI
- 14.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Nature reviews. Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UEA Digital Repository (University of East Anglia) (acceptedVersion)
- MPG.PuRe (Max Planck Society) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Canadian Institutes of Health Research
- National Institute on Aging (RF1AG039103, RF1AG006265)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Aging and Gerontology Research
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Dementia and Cognitive Impairment Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- cognitive aging, cognitive reserve, cognitive compensation, cognitive maintenance, dementia, brain aging, functional connectivity, terminology definitions
- MeSH terms
- Cognitive Aging, Cognitive Neuroscience, Healthy Aging, Brain, Humans, Cognitive Reserve
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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