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Nonword Repetition and Child Language Impairment
Abstract
A brief, processing-dependent, nonword repetition task, designed to minimize biases associated with traditional language tests, was investigated. In Study 1, no overlap in nonword repetition performance was found between a group of 20 school-age children enrolled in language intervention (LI) and a group of 20 age-matched peers developing language normally (LN). In Study 2, a comparison of likelihood ratios for the nonword repetition task and for a traditional language test revealed that nonword repetition distinguished between children independently identified as LI and LN with a high degree of accuracy, by contrast with the traditional language test. Nonword repetition may have considerable clinical utility as a screening measure for language impairment in children. Information on the likelihood ratios associated with all diagnostic tests of language is badly needed.
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“as for non-word repetition, the results were not sufficiently consistent across different studies, so it cannot be considered as an accurate diagnostic tool if used individually”
From Developmental Language Disorder: Early Predictors, Age for the Diagnosis, and Diagnostic Tools. A Scoping Review (2021) · cites this paper as [158]
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“North, & Donlan, 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodLanguage Deficits in Poor Comprehenders: A Case for the Simple View of Reading
Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., & Weismer, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/023 · Cited by 1,034
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“Increased sensitivity to increasing length of nonwords has now been replicated in many samples of children with SLI (e.g., Archibald & Gathercole, in press-a; Bishop et al., 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Marton & Schwartz, 2003; Montgomery, 1995a).”
BackgroundAre Specific Language Impairment and Dyslexia Distinct Disorders?
Catts, H. W., Adlof, S. M., Hogan, T. P., & Weismer, S. E. (2005) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/096 · Cited by 686
Gathercole, S. E., & Pickering, S. J. (2000) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1348/000709900158047 · Cited by 726
“To investigate this, it will be necessary either to work with much larger samples of children, or to study working memory profiles in children with more specific learning disabilities such as specific language impairment (Bishop et al., 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990).”
BackgroundEdwards, J., Beckman, M. E., & Munson, B. (2004) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/034 · Cited by 499
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Nonword Repetition Performance in School-Age Children With and Without Language Impairment
Weismer, S. E., Tomblin, J. B., Zhang, X., Buckwalter, P. R., Chynoweth, J. G., & Jones, M. (2000) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jslhr.4304.865 · Cited by 486
“…knowledge is not clear, studies have shown that children with language impairment continue to perform significantly worse than normal language controls even when lexical features of the nonword stimuli have been adjusted to reduce wordlikeness (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Edward & Lahey, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSpeed of Processing, Working Memory, and Language Impairment in Children
Leonard, L. B., Weismer, S. E., Miller, C., Francis, D. J., Tomblin, J. B., & Kail, R. V. (2007) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/029 · Cited by 483
Defining the broader phenotype of autism: genetic, brain, and behavioral perspectives
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“Further-leled that found in children with SLI (Bishop et al., 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; more, Hafeman, and Tomblin (1999) found a significantly elevated risk of autism amongGathercole & Baddeley, 1990).”
BackgroundIdentifying neurocognitive phenotypes in autism
Tager-Flusberg, H., & Joseph, R. M. (2003) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2002.1198 · Cited by 460
“Gathercole & Baddeley 1990; Bishop et al. 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell 1998; Weismer et al. 2000).”
BackgroundIdentifying Pathways Between Socioeconomic Status and Language Development
Pace, A. E., Luo, R., Hirsh‐Pasek, K., & Golinkoff, R. M. (2016) · Annual Review of Linguistics · doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011516-034226 · Cited by 471
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Weismer, S. E., Evans, J. L., & Hesketh, L. J. (1999) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/jslhr.4205.1249 · Cited by 441
“Other investigations have employed nonword repetition tasks (Bishop, North, & Donlan, 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Edwards & Lahey, 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990a; Montgomery, 1995), a paradigm that has been used extensively by Baddeley and colleagues as a measure of phonological working…”
BackgroundMethodShort‐term and working memory in specific language impairment
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820500442602 · Cited by 553
Coady, J. A., & Evans, J. L. (2008) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820601116485 · Cited by 432
Montgomery, J. W., Magimairaj, B. M., & Finney, M. C. (2010) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2009/09-0028 · Cited by 374
Semantic Representation and Naming in Children With Specific Language Impairment
McGregor, K. K., Newman, R. M., Reilly, R. M., & Singleton, N. C. (2002) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/081 · Cited by 333
Research on speech motor control and its disorders
Kent, R. D. (2000) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0021-9924(00)00023-x · Cited by 345
“…has been shown in several studies that children with language impairment perform more poorly than their typically developing peers on the task of nonword repetition (Bishop, North, & Donlan, 1996; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Sahlen, Wagner, Nettelbladt, & Radeborg, 1998; Stark, & Blackwell, 1997).”
BackgroundProcessing and linguistic markers in young children with specific language impairment (SLI).
Conti-Ramsden, G. (2003) · Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/082 · Cited by 302
Tense marking in children with autism
ROBERTS, J. A., Rice, M. L., & Tager-Flusberg, H. B. (2004) · Applied Psycholinguistics · doi:10.1017/s0142716404001201 · Cited by 298
“Because nonword repetition is considered an important clinical marker for SLI (Bishop, North, & Donlan, 1996; Conti‐Ramsden, Botting, & Faragher, 2001; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990; Tager‐Flusberg, & Cooper, 1999), these findings were taken as evidence that the language phenotype of this sub…”
BackgroundResultLaws, G., & Bishop, D. (2003) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/103 · Cited by 293
Defining language phenotypes in autism
Tager-Flusberg, H. (2006) · Clinical Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.cnr.2006.06.007 · Cited by 281
“…test of nonsense word repetition (NWR), in order to examine the kinds of errors made by children with ALI and to investigate the whether NWR performance is correlated with vocabulary and other phonological processing tasks in children with autism, as has been found for children with SLI [18].”
BackgroundMunson, B., Kurtz, B. A., & Windsor, J. (2005) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/072 · Cited by 272
How is phonological processing related to individual differences in children’s arithmetic skills?
Smedt, B. D., Taylor, J., Archibald, L. M. D., & Ansari, D. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00897.x · Cited by 274
“digital audio recording of an adult female speaker following the phonetic transcription and pronunciation guidelines described by Dollaghan and Campbell (1998). The child was asked to immediately repeat the presented nonword.”
MethodWord Learning by Preschoolers With Specific Language Impairment
Gray, S. I. (2004) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/083 · Cited by 269
Stokes, S. F., Wong, A. M.-Y., Fletcher, P. J., & Leonard, L. B. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/019 · Cited by 258
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Present and Future Possibilities for Defining a Phenotype for Specific Language Impairment
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Eadie, P. A., Fey, M. E., Douglas, J. M., & Parsons, C. L. (2002) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2002/058 · Cited by 211
Sansavini, A., Favilla, M. E., Guasti, M. T., Marini, A., Millepiedi, S., Di Martino, M. V., Vecchi, S., Battajon, N., Bertolo, L., Capirci, O., et al. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11050654 · Cited by 207
“, CNRep—children’s test of nonword repetition [156]: sensitivity = 66, specificity = 85; NRT—Nonword Repetition Test [157,158]: sensitivity 79–86, specificity 89–91).”
BackgroundInfluentialAlloway, T. P., & Archibald, L. M. D. (2008) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219408315815 · Cited by 204
“Deficits in phonological loop capacity in SLI have been widely reported in studies of nonword repetition (e.g., Botting & Conti-Ramsden, 2001; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Edwards & Lahey, 1998; Ellis Weismer et al., 2000; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990), as well as studies using more conventional verbal shortterm memory…”
BackgroundResultImplicit Statistical Learning: A Tale of Two Literatures
Christiansen, M. H. (2019) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12332 · Cited by 167
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Peña, E. D., Gillam, R. B., Malek, M., Ruiz‐Felter, R., Reséndiz, M., Fiestas, C. E., & Sabel, T. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/074 · Cited by 202
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Working memory and comprehension in children with specific language impairment: what we know so far
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“Dollaghan and Campbell (1998) and Gathercole and Baddeley (1990a) provide examples of such a task.”
BackgroundInfluentialSpaulding, T. J., Plante, E., & Vance, R. (2008) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/002 · Cited by 180
Age 13 Language and Reading Outcomes in Late-Talking Toddlers
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Prevalence and Phenotype of Childhood Apraxia of Speech in Youth With Galactosemia
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Evaluating the validity of the Automated Working Memory Assessment
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“Furthermore, while working memory skills are not strongly associated with a child’s background, such as maternal education levels (e.g., Alloway et al., 2004; Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998), performance on some memory tests is susceptible to learning influences.”
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“Dollaghan and Campbell (1998) found that cultural influences on nonword repetition performance for school-age children with language disorders were minimal.”
BackgroundInfluentialEvaluation of speech and language assessment approaches with bilingual children
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“As well, tense vowels were included so that the multisyllabic nonwords were produced with equal stress across syllables (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998), thereby minimizing prosodic differences across tasks.”
BackgroundInfluentialSmith, A., Sadagopan, N., Walsh, B. M., & Weber-Fox, C. M. (2009) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2009.12.001 · Cited by 169
“The purposes of the present investigation are (1) to use a standardized nonword repetition task (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998) to assess at a behavioral level the accuracy of nonword repetition in a group of adults who stutter; (2) to use kinematic measures to detect any differences in articulatory…”
InfluentialVerbal and Spatial Information Processing Constraints in Children With Specific Language Impairment
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“The profile of language performance among a subgroup of children with autism mirrors the profile of SLI: poorer performance on tests of grammatical ability than vocabulary, and difficulties with non-word repetition (Tomblin and Zhang, 1999; Dollaghan and Campbell, 1998; Kjelgaard and Tager-Flusberg, 2001).”
BackgroundLanguage Acquisition and Language Disorders
(2013) · Language acquisition & language disorders · doi:10.1075/lald · Cited by 166
A Nonword Repetition Task for Speakers With Misarticulations: The Syllable Repetition Task (SRT)
Shriberg, L. D., Lohmeier, H. L., Campbell, T. F., Dollaghan, C. A., Green, J. R., & Moore, C. A. (2009) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2009/08-0047 · Cited by 161
Self-citationEncoding, memory, and transcoding deficits in Childhood Apraxia of Speech
Shriberg, L. D., Lohmeier, H. L., Strand, E. A., & Jakielski, K. J. (2012) · Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics · doi:10.3109/02699206.2012.655841 · Cited by 161
“Most scoring systems for nonword repetition tasks score a response as correct as long as the correct sound was produced adjacent to the addition, but have some convention to keep track of the frequency of such sound additions (e.g. Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998).”
Thordardottir, E. T., Kehayia, E., Mazer, B. L., Lessard, N., Majnemer, A., Sutton, A. E., Trudeau, N., & Chilingaryan, G. (2010) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/09-0196 · Cited by 159
Word Learning by Preschoolers With Specific Language Impairment
Gray, S. I. (2005) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/101 · Cited by 158
A Prosodically Controlled Word and Nonword Repetition Task for 2- to 4-Year-Olds
Roy, P., & Chiat, S. (2004) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2004/019 · Cited by 158
Chapman, R. S. (2006) · Down Syndrome Research and Practice · doi:10.3104/reports.306 · Cited by 157
“They did, however, differ significantly (p<.05 1- tailed) on performance on 4-syllable words of the Nonword Repetition Test (Down syndrome X=13.50, SD=6.31; cognitive impairment of unknown origin =18.00, SD=9.49) and on the age-equivalent and age-based standard scores for the K-ABC Number Recall digit span test, with…”
MethodInfluentialUse of Narrative-Based Language Intervention With Children Who Have Specific Language Impairment
Swanson, L. A., Fey, M. E., Mills, C. E., & Hood, L. S. (2005) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2005/014 · Cited by 155
Gathercole, S. E. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198568971.013.0046 · Cited by 153
Archibald, L. M. D., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2006.11.004 · Cited by 150
Early Identification of Reading Disabilities Within an RTI Framework
Catts, H. W., Nielsen, D. C., Bridges, M. S., Liu, Y. S., & Bontempo, D. E. (2013) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219413498115 · Cited by 151
“On the Nonword Repetition task (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998), the participant is required to repeat 16 nonwords ranging from one to four syllables in length (four words at each length).”
Understanding the Language Difficulties of Children With Specific Language Impairments
Montgomery, J. W. (2002) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2002/009 · Cited by 151
Gray, S. I. (2003) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0021-9924(03)00003-0 · Cited by 150
Are Working Memory Measures Free of Socioeconomic Influence?
de Abreu, P. E., Santos, F. H., & Gathercole, S. E. (2008) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/07-0210 · Cited by 149
Redmond, S. M., Thompson, H. L., & Goldstein, S. (2010) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/10-0010 · Cited by 149
Gutiérrez‐Clellen, V. F., & Simon‐Cereijido, G. (2010) · Learning Disabilities Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00300.x · Cited by 149
“This level of accuracy was lower than the LRs of the ENWRT reported by Dollaghan and Campbell (1998) (i.e., 25), but it was higher than those reported by Kohnert et al. (i.e., 5.07), Ellis Weismer et al. (i.e., 2.60), and Thal, Miller, Carlson, and Vega (2005) (i.e., 3.33).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialNonword repetition abilities of children who stutter: an exploratory study
Hakim, H. B., & Ratner, N. B. (2004) · Journal of Fluency Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jfludis.2004.06.001 · Cited by 149
“An impressive finding byDollaghan and Campbell (1998) was that a nonword repetition task distinguished children enrolled in language intervention from language-normal children with a higher degree of accuracy than a norm-referenced language test. Edwards and Lahey (1998) also found that children with SLI were less acc…”
BackgroundInfluentialHedenius, M., Persson, J., Tremblay, A., Adi‐Japha, E., Veríssimo, J., Dye, C. D., Alm, P. A., Jennische, M., Tomblin, J. B., & Ullman, M. T. (2011) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.07.026 · Cited by 158
Gray, S. I. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/069 · Cited by 144
Rapid Auditory Processing and Phonological Ability in Normal Readers and Readers With Dyslexia
Marshall, C. M., Snowling, M. J., & Bailey, P. J. (2001) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2001/073 · Cited by 144
Dynamic Assessment of Word Learning Skills: Identifying Language Impairment in Bilingual Children
Kapantzoglou, M., Restrepo, M. A., & Thompson, M. S. (2012) · Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools · doi:10.1044/0161-1461(2011/10-0095 · Cited by 142
Discovery of 42 genome-wide significant loci associated with dyslexia
Doust, C., Fontanillas, P., Eising, E., Gordon, S. D., Wang, Z., Alagöz, G., Molz, B., Aslibekyan, S. W., Auton, A., Babalola, E., et al. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-022-01192-y · Cited by 167
Chiat, S., & Roy, P. (2007) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2007/030 · Cited by 141
Imitation of nonwords by hearing impaired children with cochlear implants: suprasegmental analyses
Carter, A. K., Dillon, C. M., & Pisoni, D. B. (2002) · Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics · doi:10.1080/02699200021000034958 · Cited by 136
“Although normally developing children have been studied as comparison groups for the children with language disorders (Dollaghan and Campbell, 1998; Weismer, Tomblin, Zhang, Buckwalter, Chynoweth and Jones, 2000; Roodenrys and Stokes, 2001), the nonword repetition task has also been used with normally developing child…”
BackgroundBilingual Language Assessment: A Meta-Analysis of Diagnostic Accuracy
Dollaghan, C. A., & Horner, E. A. (2010) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2010/10-0093 · Cited by 135
Self-citationAltman, C., Burstein-Feldman, Z., Yitzhaki, D., Armon-Lotem, S., & Walters, J. (2013) · Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development · doi:10.1080/01434632.2013.852561 · Cited by 135
“(2) NWR consisted of 42 items in each language (see Armon-Lotem and Chiat [2012], for further details); it assessed morphophonological processing as well as short-term memory (Baddeley 2003; Conti-Ramsden 2003; Dollaghan and Campbell 1998; Montgomery 2003).”
Thordardottir, E. T. (2008) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2008/068 · Cited by 132
Shriberg, L. D., Ballard, K. J., Tomblin, J. B., Duffy, J. R., Odell, K. H., & Williams, C. A. (2006) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2006/038 · Cited by 130
Montgomery, J. W. (2004) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820310001616985 · Cited by 132
Academic outcomes in children with histories of speech sound disorders
Lewis, B. A., Freebairn, L. A., & Taylor, H. G. (2000) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/s0021-9924(99)00023-4 · Cited by 131
Specific language impairment in Italian: The first steps in the search for a clinical marker
Bortolini, U., Caselli, M. C., Deevy, P., & Leonard, L. B. (2002) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/13682820110116758 · Cited by 130
Risk markers for SLI: A study of young language-learning children
Conti‐Ramsden, G., & Hesketh, A. (2003) · International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders · doi:10.1080/1368282031000092339 · Cited by 129
Girbau, D., & Schwartz, R. G. (2007) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2007.07.001 · Cited by 129
“Our results are similar to findings for children speaking English (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Ellis Weismer et al., 2000; Montgomery, 2004; Rodekohr & Haynes, 2001) and findings from other languages (e.g., Le Foll et al., 1995), including Spanish (Girbau & Schwartz, 2007).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCross-Language Nonword Repetition by Bilingual and Monolingual Children
Windsor, J., Kohnert, K. J., Lobitz, K. F., & Pham, G. T. (2010) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2010/09-0064 · Cited by 128
Dispaldro, M., Leonard, L. B., & Deevy, P. (2012) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2012/11-0304 · Cited by 127
The composition of normative groups and diagnostic decision making: shooting ourselves in the foot.
Peña, E. D., Spaulding, T. J., & Plante, E. (2006) · American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.1044/1058-0360(2006/023 · Cited by 141
The Acquisition of Sign Language: The Impact of Phonetic Complexity on Phonology
Mann, W., Marshall, C. R., Mason, K., & Morgan, G. (2010) · Language Learning and Development · doi:10.1080/15475440903245951 · Cited by 124
“For instance, children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) and dyslexia are poor at repeating non-words (Dollaghan & Campbell, 1998; Gallon, Harris, & van der Lely, 2007; Gathercole & Baddeley, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialWeismer, S. E., Plante, E., Jones, M., & Tomblin, J. B. (2005) · Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research · doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2005/028 · Cited by 124
Metadata
- Authors
- Dollaghan, C., & Campbell, T. F.
- Affiliations
- University of Pittsburgh (US)
- ORCID
- Campbell, Thomas F.
- Venue
- Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research
- Published
- 1998-10
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1136-1146
- ISSN
- 1092-4388 (ISSN-L)
- 1558-9102
- OpenAlex
- W1986346898
- Cited by
- 1,006
- References
- 34
- Citations by year
- 2026: 22 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 51 · 2022: 41 · 2021: 43 · 2020: 58 · 2019: 49 · 2018: 46 · 2017: 60 · 2016: 49 · 2015: 44 · 2014: 52 · 2013: 48 · 2012: 53
- FWCI
- 12.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r29dc001858-05)
- National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (R29DC01858)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Language Development and Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Reading and Literacy Development
- Health Sciences › Health Professions › Speech and Hearing › Hearing Loss and Rehabilitation
- Keywords
- non-word repetition, language impairment, children, language screening, likelihood ratios, language intervention, diagnostic test validity, language assessment
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Humans, Language Disorders, Language Tests, Male, Phonetics, Speech Disorders
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